SherbyNet - /page/wikibook/entry.mu

Micron Document

<!DOCTYPE html>

</head>

Meat

</h1>

</header>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="Meat_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Meat (disambiguation)">Meat (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

Meat is animal <a href="Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissue</a>, often <a href="Muscle" title="Muscle">muscle</a>, that is eaten as food. Humans have hunted and farmed other animals for meat since prehistory. The <a href="Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a> allowed the <a href="Domestication_of_vertebrates" title="Domestication of vertebrates">domestication of vertebrates</a>, including <a href="Chicken" title="Chicken">chickens</a>, <a href="Sheep" title="Sheep">sheep</a>, <a href="Goat" title="Goat">goats</a>, <a href="Pig" title="Pig">pigs</a>, <a href="Horse" title="Horse">horses</a>, and <a href="Cattle" title="Cattle">cattle</a>, starting around 11,000 years ago. Since then, <a href="Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">selective breeding</a> has enabled farmers to produce meat with the qualities desired by producers and consumers.

Meat is mainly composed of water, protein, and fat. Its quality is affected by many factors, including the genetics, health, and nutritional status of the animal involved. Without preservation, bacteria and fungi decompose and <a href="Meat_spoilage" title="Meat spoilage">spoil unprocessed meat</a> within hours or days. Meat is <a href="Raw_meat" title="Raw meat">edible raw</a>, but it is mostly eaten cooked, such as by <a href="Stewing" class="mw-redirect" title="Stewing">stewing</a> or <a href="Roasting" title="Roasting">roasting</a>, or <a href="Processed_meat" title="Processed meat">processed</a>, such as by <a href="Smoking_(cooking)" title="Smoking (cooking)">smoking</a> or <a href="Salting_(food)" title="Salting (food)">salting</a>.

The consumption of meat (especially <a href="Red_meat" title="Red meat">red</a> and processed meat, as opposed to <a href="Fish_as_food" title="Fish as food">fish</a> and <a href="Poultry" title="Poultry">poultry</a>) increases the risk of certain negative health outcomes including cancer, <a href="Coronary_heart_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Coronary heart disease">coronary heart disease</a>, and <a href="Diabetes" title="Diabetes">diabetes</a>. Meat production is a major contributor to <a href="Environmental_impact_of_meat_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of meat production">environmental issues</a> including <a href="Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a>, pollution, and <a href="Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a>, at local and global scales, but meat is important to economies and cultures around the world. Some people (<a href="Vegetarianism" title="Vegetarianism">vegetarians</a> and <a href="Vegans" class="mw-redirect" title="Vegans">vegans</a>) choose not to eat meat for <a href="Ethics_of_eating_meat" title="Ethics of eating meat">ethical</a>, environmental, health or religious reasons.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div>

The word meat comes from the <a href="Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> word mete, meaning food in general. In modern usage, meat primarily means <a href="Skeletal_muscle" title="Skeletal muscle">skeletal muscle</a> with its associated fat and connective tissue, but it can include <a href="Offal" title="Offal">offal</a>, other edible organs such as <a href="Liver" title="Liver">liver</a> and <a href="Kidney" title="Kidney">kidney</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward20061–2-1">[1]</a> The term is sometimes used in a more restrictive sense to mean the flesh of <a href="Mammal" title="Mammal">mammalian</a> species (pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, etc.) raised and prepared for human consumption, to the exclusion of <a href="Fish_as_food" title="Fish as food">fish</a>, other seafood, <a href="Entomophagy" title="Entomophagy">insects</a>, poultry, or other animals.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Definition_of_MEAT-3">[3]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="History_of_agriculture" title="History of agriculture">History of agriculture</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Domestication">Domestication</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Domestication" title="Domestication">Domestication</a></div>

<a href="Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontological</a> evidence suggests that meat constituted a substantial proportion of the diet of the earliest humans. Early <a href="Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherers</a> depended on the organized hunting of large animals such as <a href="Bison" title="Bison">bison</a> and <a href="Deer" title="Deer">deer</a>. Animals were <a href="Domestication" title="Domestication">domesticated</a> in the <a href="Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a>, enabling the systematic production of meat and the <a href="Animal_husbandry" title="Animal husbandry">breeding</a> of animals to improve meat production.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward20061–2-1">[1]</a>

<caption>Major animal domestications

</caption>

<th>Animal</th>

<th><a href="Vavilov_center" title="Vavilov center">Centre of origin</a></th>

<th>Purpose</th>

<th>Date/years ago

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Goat" title="Goat">Goat</a>, <a href="Sheep" title="Sheep">sheep</a>, <a href="Pig" title="Pig">pig</a>, <a href="Cow" class="mw-redirect" title="Cow">cow</a></td>

<td>Near East, South Asia</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Chicken" title="Chicken">Chicken</a></td>

<td><a href="Cockfighting" title="Cockfighting">Cockfighting</a></td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Horse" title="Horse">Horse</a></td>

<td>Central Asia</td>

<td><a href="Pack_animal" title="Pack animal">Draft</a>, <a href="Equestrianism" title="Equestrianism">riding</a></td>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intensive_animal_farming">Intensive animal farming</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Intensive_animal_farming" title="Intensive animal farming">Intensive animal farming</a></div>

In the <a href="Post-war" title="Post-war">postwar period</a>, governments gave farmers <a href="Agricultural_subsidy" title="Agricultural subsidy">guaranteed prices</a> to increase <a href="Animal_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal production">animal production</a>. The effect was to raise output at the cost of increased inputs such as of animal feed and veterinary medicines, as well as of animal disease and environmental pollution.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> In 1966, the United States, the United Kingdom and other industrialized nations, began factory farming of beef and dairy cattle and domestic pigs.<a href="#cite_note-Danielle_Nierenburg_2005-8">[8]</a> Intensive animal farming became globalized in the later years of the 20th century, replacing traditional stock rearing in countries around the world.<a href="#cite_note-Danielle_Nierenburg_2005-8">[8]</a> In 1990 intensive animal farming accounted for 30% of world meat production and by 2005, this had risen to 40%.<a href="#cite_note-Danielle_Nierenburg_2005-8">[8]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Selective_breeding">Selective breeding</h3></div>

Modern agriculture employs techniques such as <a href="Progeny_testing" title="Progeny testing">progeny testing</a> to speed <a href="Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">selective breeding</a>, allowing the rapid acquisition of the qualities desired by meat producers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200610–14-9">[9]</a> For instance, in the wake of well-publicized health concerns associated with <a href="Saturated_fat" title="Saturated fat">saturated fats</a> in the 1980s, the fat content of United Kingdom beef, pork and lamb fell from 20–26 percent to 4–8 percent within a few decades, due to both selective breeding for leanness and changed methods of butchery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200610–14-9">[9]</a> Methods of <a href="Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">genetic engineering</a> that could improve the meat-producing qualities of animals are becoming available.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200610–14-9">[9]</a>

Meat production continues to be shaped by the demands of customers. The trend towards selling meat in pre-packaged cuts has increased the demand for larger breeds of cattle, better suited to producing such cuts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200610–14-9">[9]</a> Animals not previously exploited for their meat are now being farmed, including mammals such as <a href="Antelope" title="Antelope">antelope</a>, zebra, <a href="Water_buffalo" title="Water buffalo">water buffalo</a> and camel,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200610–14-9">[9]</a> as well as non-mammals, such as crocodile, <a href="Emu" title="Emu">emu</a> and ostrich.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200610–14-9">[9]</a> <a href="Organic_farming" title="Organic farming">Organic farming</a> supports an increasing demand for meat produced to that standard.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a>

<div class="gallerytext">A shoulder of <a href="Lamb_and_mutton" title="Lamb and mutton">lamb</a></div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">A <a href="Hereford_(cattle)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hereford (cattle)">Hereford</a> bull, a breed of beef cattle</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Supermarket meat, North America</div>

</li>

</ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Animal_growth_and_development">Animal growth and development</h2></div>

Several factors affect the growth and development of meat.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetics">Genetics</h3></div>

<th>Trait

</th>

<th>Heritability<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200617–22-11">[11]</a>

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>Reproductive efficiency

</td>

<td>2–10%

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Meat quality

</td>

<td>15–30%

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Growth

</td>

<td>20–40%

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Muscle/fat ratio

</td>

<td>40–60%

</td></tr></tbody></table>

Some economically important traits in meat animals are heritable to some degree, and can thus be selected for by <a href="Animal_breeding" title="Animal breeding">animal breeding</a>. In cattle, certain growth features are controlled by <a href="Dominance_(genetics)" title="Dominance (genetics)">recessive genes</a> which have not so far been excluded, complicating breeding.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200617–22-11">[11]</a> One such trait is <a href="Dwarfism" title="Dwarfism">dwarfism</a>; another is the doppelender or "<a href="Myostatin" title="Myostatin">double muscling</a>" condition, which causes <a href="Muscle_hypertrophy" title="Muscle hypertrophy">muscle hypertrophy</a> and thereby increases the animal's commercial value.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200617–22-11">[11]</a> <a href="Genetic_analysis" title="Genetic analysis">Genetic analysis</a> continues to reveal the mechanisms that control numerous aspects of the <a href="Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">endocrine system</a> and, through it, meat growth and quality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200617–22-11">[11]</a>

<a href="Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a> can shorten breeding programs significantly because they allow for the identification and isolation of <a href="Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> coding for desired traits, and for the reincorporation of these genes into the animal <a href="Genome" title="Genome">genome</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200617–22-11">[11]</a> To enable this, the genomes of many animals <a href="Genome_project" title="Genome project">are being mapped</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200617–22-11">[11]</a> Some research has already seen commercial application. For instance, a <a href="Recombinant_DNA" title="Recombinant DNA">recombinant</a> <a href="Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacterium</a> has been developed which improves the digestion of grass in the <a href="Rumen" title="Rumen">rumen</a> of cattle, and some features of muscle fibers have been genetically altered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200617–22-11">[11]</a> Experimental <a href="Cloning" title="Cloning">reproductive cloning</a> of commercially important meat animals such as sheep, pig or cattle has been successful. Asexual reproduction of animals bearing desirable traits is anticipated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200617–22-11">[11]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Environment">Environment</h3></div>

Heat regulation in livestock is of economic significance, as mammals attempt to maintain a constant optimal body temperature. Low temperatures tend to prolong animal development and high temperatures tend to delay it. Depending on their size, body shape and insulation through tissue and fur, some animals have a relatively narrow zone of temperature tolerance and others (e.g. cattle) a broad one. Static <a href="Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic fields</a>, for reasons still unknown, retard animal development.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200622–23-12">[12]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Animal_nutrition">Animal nutrition</h3></div>

The quality and quantity of usable meat depends on the animal's plane of nutrition, i.e., whether it is over- or underfed. Scientists disagree about how exactly the plane of nutrition influences carcase composition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200625–30-13">[13]</a>

The composition of the diet, especially the amount of protein provided, is an important factor regulating animal growth. <a href="Ruminant" title="Ruminant">Ruminants</a>, which may digest <a href="Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a>, are better adapted to poor-quality diets, but their ruminal microorganisms degrade high-quality protein if supplied in excess. Because producing high-quality protein animal feed is expensive, several techniques are employed or experimented with to ensure maximum utilization of protein. These include the treatment of feed with <a href="Formaldehyde" title="Formaldehyde">formalin</a> to protect <a href="Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a> during their passage through the <a href="Rumen" title="Rumen">rumen</a>, the recycling of <a href="Manure" title="Manure">manure</a> by feeding it back to cattle mixed with feed concentrates, or the conversion of petroleum <a href="Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbons</a> to protein through microbial action.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200625–30-13">[13]</a>

In plant feed, environmental factors influence the availability of crucial <a href="Nutrient" title="Nutrient">nutrients</a> or <a href="Micronutrient" title="Micronutrient">micronutrients</a>, a lack or excess of which can cause a great many ailments. In Australia, where the soil contains limited <a href="Phosphate" title="Phosphate">phosphate</a>, cattle are fed additional phosphate to increase the efficiency of beef production. Also in Australia, cattle and sheep in certain areas were often found losing their appetite and dying in the midst of rich pasture; this was found to be a result of <a href="Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a> deficiency in the soil. Plant <a href="Toxin" title="Toxin">toxins</a> are a risk to grazing animals; for instance, <a href="Sodium_fluoroacetate" title="Sodium fluoroacetate">sodium fluoroacetate</a>, found in some African and Australian plants, kills by disrupting the <a href="Cellular_metabolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Cellular metabolism">cellular metabolism</a>. Some man-made <a href="Pollutant" title="Pollutant">pollutants</a> such as <a href="Methylmercury" title="Methylmercury">methylmercury</a> and some <a href="Pesticide" title="Pesticide">pesticide</a> residues present a particular hazard as they <a href="Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">bioaccumulate</a> in meat, potentially poisoning consumers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200625–30-13">[13]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Animal_welfare">Animal welfare</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Animal_welfare_labelling" title="Animal welfare labelling">Animal welfare labelling</a></div>

Practices such as confinement in <a href="Factory_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Factory farming">factory farming</a> have generated concerns for <a href="Animal_welfare" title="Animal welfare">animal welfare</a>. Animals have <a href="List_of_abnormal_behaviours_in_animals" title="List of abnormal behaviours in animals">abnormal behaviors</a> such as tail-biting, cannibalism, and <a href="Abnormal_behaviour_of_birds_in_captivity" title="Abnormal behaviour of birds in captivity">feather pecking</a>. <a href="Overview_of_discretionary_invasive_procedures_on_animals" title="Overview of discretionary invasive procedures on animals">Invasive procedures</a> such as <a href="Debeaking" class="mw-redirect" title="Debeaking">beak trimming</a>, <a href="Castration" title="Castration">castration</a>, and <a href="Animal_identification" title="Animal identification">ear notching</a> have similarly been questioned.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Breeding for high productivity may affect welfare, as when <a href="Broiler" title="Broiler">broiler</a> chickens are bred to be very large and to grow rapidly. Broilers often have leg deformities and become lame, and many die from the stress of handling and transport.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_intervention">Human intervention</h3></div>

Meat producers may seek to improve the <a href="Fertility" title="Fertility">fertility</a> of female animals through the administration of <a href="Gonadotropic_cell" title="Gonadotropic cell">gonadotrophic</a> or <a href="Ovulation" title="Ovulation">ovulation</a>-inducing <a href="Hormone" title="Hormone">hormones</a>. In pig production, <a href="Domestic_pig" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic pig">sow</a> infertility is a common problem – possibly due to excessive fatness. No methods currently exist to augment the fertility of male animals. <a href="Artificial_insemination" title="Artificial insemination">Artificial insemination</a> is now routinely used to produce animals of the best possible genetic quality, and the efficiency of this method is improved through the administration of hormones that synchronize the ovulation cycles within groups of females.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200631–33-19">[19]</a>

<a href="Growth_hormone" title="Growth hormone">Growth hormones</a>, particularly <a href="Anabolism" title="Anabolism">anabolic</a> agents such as <a href="Steroid" title="Steroid">steroids</a>, are used in some countries to accelerate muscle growth in animals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200631–33-19">[19]</a> This practice has given rise to the <a href="Beef_hormone_controversy" title="Beef hormone controversy">beef hormone controversy</a>, an international trade dispute. It may decrease the tenderness of meat, although research on this is inconclusive, and have other effects on the composition of the muscle flesh.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200635–39-20">[20]</a> Where <a href="Castration" title="Castration">castration</a> is used to improve control over male animals, its side effects can be counteracted by the administration of hormones.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200631–33-19">[19]</a> <a href="Myostatin" title="Myostatin">Myostatin</a> has been used to produce <a href="Myostatin-related_muscle_hypertrophy" title="Myostatin-related muscle hypertrophy">muscle hypertrophy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a>

<a href="Sedative" title="Sedative">Sedatives</a> may be administered to animals to counteract stress factors and increase weight gain. The feeding of <a href="Antibiotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotics">antibiotics</a> to certain animals increases growth rates. This practice is particularly prevalent in the US, but has been banned in the EU, partly because it causes <a href="Antimicrobial_resistance" title="Antimicrobial resistance">antimicrobial resistance</a> in <a href="Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogenic</a> microorganisms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200635–39-20">[20]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Composition">Composition</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biochemical">Biochemical</h3></div>

The biochemical composition of meat varies in complex ways depending on the species, breed, sex, age, plane of nutrition, training and exercise of the animal, as well as on the anatomical location of the musculature involved.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200694–126-22">[22]</a> Even between animals of the same litter and sex there are considerable differences in such parameters as the percentage of intramuscular fat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006126-23">[23]</a>

Adult mammalian <a href="Muscle" title="Muscle">muscle</a> consists of roughly 75 percent water, 19 percent protein, 2.5 percent intramuscular fat, 1.2 percent <a href="Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrates</a> and 2.3 percent other soluble substances. These include organic compounds, especially <a href="Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a>, and inorganic substances such as minerals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200676–80-24">[24]</a> Muscle proteins are either soluble in water (<a href="Sarcoplasm" title="Sarcoplasm">sarcoplasmic</a> proteins, about 11.5 percent of total muscle mass) or in concentrated salt solutions (<a href="Myofibril" title="Myofibril">myofibrillar</a> proteins, about 5.5 percent of mass).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200676–80-24">[24]</a> There are several hundred sarcoplasmic proteins.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200676–80-24">[24]</a> Most of them – the glycolytic <a href="Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a> – are involved in <a href="Glycolysis" title="Glycolysis">glycolysis</a>, the conversion of sugars into high-energy molecules, especially <a href="Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">adenosine triphosphate</a> (ATP).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200676–80-24">[24]</a> The two most abundant myofibrillar proteins, <a href="Myosin" title="Myosin">myosin</a> and <a href="Actin" title="Actin">actin</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200676–80-24">[24]</a> form the muscle's overall structure and enable it to deliver power, consuming ATP in the process. The remaining protein mass includes <a href="Connective_tissue" title="Connective tissue">connective tissue</a> (<a href="Collagen" title="Collagen">collagen</a> and <a href="Elastin" title="Elastin">elastin</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200676–80-24">[24]</a> Fat in meat can be either <a href="Adipose_tissue" title="Adipose tissue">adipose tissue</a>, used by the animal to store energy and consisting of "true fats" (<a href="Ester" title="Ester">esters</a> of <a href="Glycerol" title="Glycerol">glycerol</a> with <a href="Fatty_acid" title="Fatty acid">fatty acids</a>),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200682-25">[25]</a> or intramuscular fat, which contains <a href="Phospholipid" title="Phospholipid">phospholipids</a> and <a href="Cholesterol" title="Cholesterol">cholesterol</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200682-25">[25]</a>

Meat can be broadly classified as "red" or "white" depending on the concentration of <a href="Myoglobin" title="Myoglobin">myoglobin</a> in muscle fiber. When myoglobin is exposed to <a href="Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>, reddish oxymyoglobin develops, making myoglobin-rich meat appear red. The redness of meat depends on species, animal age, and fiber type: <a href="Red_meat" title="Red meat">Red meat</a> contains more narrow muscle fibers that tend to operate over long periods without rest,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200693-26">[26]</a> while <a href="White_meat" title="White meat">white meat</a> contains more broad fibers that tend to work in short fast bursts, such as the brief flight of the chicken.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200693-26">[26]</a> The meat of adult mammals such as <a href="Beef" title="Beef">cows</a>, <a href="Lamb_and_mutton" title="Lamb and mutton">sheep</a>, and <a href="Horse_meat" title="Horse meat">horses</a> is considered red, while <a href="Chicken_as_food" title="Chicken as food">chicken</a> and <a href="Turkey_meat" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkey meat">turkey</a> breast meat is considered white.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a>

<div class="gallerytext">"Red" meat: beef steak</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">"White" meat: chicken breast (flight muscle)</div>

</li>

</ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nutritional">Nutritional</h3></div>

<a href="Muscle" title="Muscle">Muscle</a> tissue is high in protein, containing all of the <a href="Essential_amino_acid" title="Essential amino acid">essential amino acids</a>, and in most cases is a good source of <a href="Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a>, <a href="Vitamin_B12" title="Vitamin B12">vitamin B12</a>, <a href="Selenium" title="Selenium">selenium</a>, <a href="Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a>, <a href="Niacin_(substance)" class="mw-redirect" title="Niacin (substance)">niacin</a>, <a href="Vitamin_B6" title="Vitamin B6">vitamin B6</a>, <a href="Choline" title="Choline">choline</a>, <a href="Riboflavin" title="Riboflavin">riboflavin</a> and iron.<a href="#cite_note-beef.org-28">[28]</a> Several forms of meat are high in <a href="Vitamin_K" title="Vitamin K">vitamin K</a>.<a href="#cite_note-k2_foods-29">[29]</a> Muscle tissue is very low in carbohydrates and does not contain dietary fiber.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a>

The fat content of meat varies widely with the <a href="Species" title="Species">species</a> and <a href="Breed" title="Breed">breed</a> of animal, the way in which the animal was raised, what it was fed, the part of the body, and the methods of butchering and cooking. Wild animals such as <a href="Deer" title="Deer">deer</a> are leaner than farm animals, leading those concerned about fat content to choose <a href="Game_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Game (food)">game</a> such as <a href="Venison" title="Venison">venison</a>. Decades of breeding meat animals for fatness is being reversed by consumer demand for leaner meat. Small amounts – in the range 3%–7% – of fat deposited near the muscle fibers ("marbling") in meats can slightly improve perceived flavour, juiciness and tenderness, but contribute no more than about 5% to overall <a href="Palatability" title="Palatability">palatability</a>.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Fat around meat further contains <a href="Cholesterol" title="Cholesterol">cholesterol</a>. The increase in meat consumption after 1960 is associated with significant imbalances of fat and cholesterol in the human diet.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a>

<caption>Nutritional content of <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style>110 g (1⁄4 lb); data vary widely with selection (e.g. skinless, boneless) and preparation

</caption>

<th>Source

</th>

<th><a href="Food_energy" title="Food energy">Energy</a>: kJ (kcal)

</th>

<th><a href="Protein" title="Protein">Protein</a>

</th>

<th><a href="Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">Carbs</a>

</th>

<th>Fat

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th>Chicken breast<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a>

</th>

<td>490 (117)

</td>

<td>25 g

</td>

<td>0 g

</td>

<td>2 g

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Lamb mince<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a>

</th>

<td>1,330 (319)

</td>

<td>19 g

</td>

<td>0 g

</td>

<td>26 g

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Beef mince<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a>

</th>

<td>1,200 (287)

</td>

<td>19 g

</td>

<td>0 g

</td>

<td>22 g

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<td>1,100 (270)

</td>

<td>20 g

</td>

<td>0 g

</td>

<td>22 g

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Horse<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a>

</th>

<td>610 (146)

</td>

<td>23 g

</td>

<td>0 g

</td>

<td>5 g

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<td>1,010 (242)

</td>

<td>14 g

</td>

<td>0 g

</td>

<td>30 g

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Rabbit<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a>

</th>

<td>900 (215)

</td>

<td>32 g

</td>

<td>0 g

</td>

<td>9 g

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Production">Production</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Meat_industry" title="Meat industry">Meat industry</a> and <a href="Meat-packing_industry" title="Meat-packing industry">Meat-packing industry</a></div>

<div class="gallerytext">World production of meat, main items<a href="#cite_note-FAOSTAT_2021-40">[40]</a></div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">World production of main meat items, main producers (2019)<a href="#cite_note-FAOSTAT_2021-40">[40]</a></div>

</li>

</ul>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .bar-chart{margin:0.5em;background-color:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid #c0c0c0;border-spacing:0px}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart tbody{display:table;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart caption{display:block;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart th,.mw-parser-output .bar-chart td{padding:3px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart tr:not(:first-child):hover{background-color:var(--background-color-base,#ffffff)}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart th[scope="col"]:not(.bar-chart-label-type){width:15em}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart th[scope="row"]:not(.bar-chart-total){font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-bar{height:1.25em;width:40em}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-bar-line{background-color:#cedff2;height:1.25em;margin:0 0 0 0;z-index:0}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-bar-comment{font-size:90%;padding-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-bar-numbers{position:relative;top:-1.4em;height:1.25em;padding:0 0 0 2em;z-index:10;width:40em}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-caption{border-top:1px solid #aaa}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-right{float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-center{margin:0.5em auto}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .bar-chart-bar-line{background-color:#74497e}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .bar-chart-bar-line{background-color:#74497e}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .bar-chart-bar-line{border:dashed 1pt grey}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style>

<caption>Land Animals Killed for Meat, 2013<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a>

</caption>

<th scope="col" class="bar-chart-label-type">Animals

</th>

<th scope="col" style="width: 10em">Number Killed

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th scope="row">Chickens

</th>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th scope="row">Ducks

</th>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th scope="row">Pigs

</th>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th scope="row">Rabbits

</th>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th scope="row">Geese

</th>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th scope="row">Turkeys

</th>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th scope="row">Sheep

</th>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th scope="row">Goats

</th>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th scope="row">Cattle

</th>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th scope="row">Rodents

</th>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th scope="row">Other birds

</th>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th scope="row">Buffalo

</th>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th scope="row">Horses

</th>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th scope="row">Donkeys, mules

</th>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th scope="row">Camelids

</th>

</td></tr>

</tbody></table>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie{display:none;position:relative;width:100px;height:100px;border-radius:50%;background-color:#333;color:black;border:1px solid black}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie div{position:absolute;transform-origin:left bottom;background-color:#655;color:black;top:0;left:50%;width:50%;height:50%;border-radius:0 500%0 0}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie div.pie50{transform-origin:left center;height:100%;border-radius:0 100%100%0/50%}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie .pie12-5{clip-path:polygon(0%0%,100%0%,0 100%)}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie .pie5{clip-path:polygon(0%0%,32.49197%0%,0 100%)}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie .pie7{clip-path:polygon(0%0%,47.056428%0%,0 100%)}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie .pie1{clip-path:polygon(0%0%,6.2914667%0%,0 100%)}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie div.smooth-pie-border{display:none}@supports(clip-path:circle(50%)){.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie{display:block}}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie-container{display:flex;align-items:flex-start;gap:1em;flex-wrap:wrap}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie-legend{list-style-type:none!important;margin:0!important;padding:0!important}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie-legend>li{display:flex;align-items:baseline;gap:.5em;margin:0;margin-bottom:0.1em}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie-legend>li>span{display:block;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie-legend>li>.l-color{border:1px solid var(--color-base,black);width:.8em;height:.8em;flex-shrink:0}.mw-parser-output .pie-thumb .smooth-pie-container{padding:.5em;padding-bottom:0;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .pie-thumb .smooth-pie-caption{margin-bottom:1em;font-size:94%}.mw-parser-output .thumbinner>.smooth-pie-container{flex-direction:column-reverse}@media screen and (min-width:641px){.mw-parser-output .thumbinner>.smooth-pie-container{width:min-content}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie-container{break-inside:avoid-page}}body.mw-mf .mw-parser-output .thumbinner .smooth-pie-container{align-items:center}body.mw-mf .mw-parser-output .thumbinner .smooth-pie-legend-container{font-size:0.8125rem;line-height:1.5;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d)}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .thumbinner .smooth-pie-legend{display:grid;grid-template-columns:repeat(auto-fill,minmax(190px,1fr));gap:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .thumbinner .smooth-pie-footer{margin-top:.5em}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style>

<div class="smooth-pie-legend-container"><div class="smooth-pie-caption"><a href="Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</a> of <a href="Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a> on Earth<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></div>

<li>Livestock, mostly cattle and pigs (60.0%)</li>

<li>Humans (36.0%)</li>

<li><a href="Wildlife" title="Wildlife">Wild mammals</a> (4.00%)</li>

</ol>

</div>

</div></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transport">Transport</h3></div>

Upon reaching a predetermined age or weight, livestock are usually transported en masse to the slaughterhouse.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006129–130-43">[43]</a> Depending on its length and circumstances, this may exert stress and injuries on the animals, and some may die en route.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006129–130-43">[43]</a> Unnecessary stress in transport may adversely affect the quality of the meat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006129–130-43">[43]</a> In particular, the muscles of stressed animals are low in water and <a href="Glycogen" title="Glycogen">glycogen</a>, and their <a href="PH" title="PH">pH</a> fails to attain acidic values, all of which results in poor meat quality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006129–130-43">[43]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slaughter">Slaughter</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Animal_slaughter" title="Animal slaughter">Animal slaughter</a> and <a href="Meat_industry" title="Meat industry">Meat industry</a></div>

Animals are usually slaughtered by being first <a href="Stunned" class="mw-redirect" title="Stunned">stunned</a> and then <a href="Exsanguination" title="Exsanguination">exsanguinated</a> (bled out). Death results from the one or the other procedure, depending on the methods employed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006134–138-44">[44]</a> Stunning can be effected through <a href="Asphyxia" title="Asphyxia">asphyxiating</a> the animals with <a href="Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, shooting them with a gun or a <a href="Captive_bolt_pistol" title="Captive bolt pistol">captive bolt pistol</a>, or shocking them with electric current.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006134–138-44">[44]</a> The exsanguination is accomplished by severing the <a href="Carotid_artery" title="Carotid artery">carotid artery</a> and the <a href="Jugular_vein" title="Jugular vein">jugular vein</a> in cattle and sheep, and the <a href="Anterior_vena_cava" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior vena cava">anterior vena cava</a> in pigs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006134–138-44">[44]</a> Draining as much blood as possible from the carcass is necessary because blood causes the meat to have an unappealing appearance and is a breeding ground for microorganisms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006134–138-44">[44]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dressing_and_cutting">Dressing and cutting</h3></div>

After exsanguination, the carcass is dressed; that is, the head, feet, hide (except hogs and some veal), excess fat, <a href="Viscera" class="mw-redirect" title="Viscera">viscera</a> and <a href="Offal" title="Offal">offal</a> are removed, leaving only bones and edible muscle.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006134–138-44">[44]</a> Cattle and pig carcases, but not those of sheep, are then split in half along the mid ventral axis, and the carcase is cut into wholesale pieces. The dressing and cutting sequence, long a province of manual labor, is being progressively automated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006134–138-44">[44]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conditioning">Conditioning</h3></div>

Under hygienic conditions and without other treatment, meat can be stored at above its freezing point (−1.5 °C) for about six weeks without spoilage, during which time it undergoes an aging process that increases its tenderness and flavor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006141–146-45">[45]</a> During the first day after death, <a href="Glycolysis" title="Glycolysis">glycolysis</a> continues until the accumulation of <a href="Lactic_acid" title="Lactic acid">lactic acid</a> causes the <a href="PH" title="PH">pH</a> to reach about 5.5. The remaining <a href="Glycogen" title="Glycogen">glycogen</a>, about 18 g per kg, increases the water-holding capacity and tenderness of cooked meat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200687-46">[46]</a>

<a href="Rigor_mortis" title="Rigor mortis">Rigor mortis</a> sets in a few hours after death as <a href="Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">adenosine triphosphate</a> is used up. This causes the muscle proteins <a href="Actin" title="Actin">actin</a> and <a href="Myosin" title="Myosin">myosin</a> to combine into rigid <a href="Actomyosin" class="mw-redirect" title="Actomyosin">actomyosin</a>. This in turn lowers the meat's water-holding capacity,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200690-47">[47]</a> so the meat loses water or "weeps".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006141–146-45">[45]</a> In muscles that enter rigor in a contracted position, actin and myosin filaments overlap and cross-bond, resulting in meat that becomes tough when cooked.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006141–146-45">[45]</a> Over time, muscle proteins <a href="Denaturation_(biochemistry)" title="Denaturation (biochemistry)">denature</a> in varying degree, with the exception of the collagen and <a href="Elastin" title="Elastin">elastin</a> of <a href="Connective_tissue" title="Connective tissue">connective tissue</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006141–146-45">[45]</a> and rigor mortis resolves. These changes mean that meat is tender and pliable when cooked just after death or after the resolution of rigor, but tough when cooked during rigor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006141–146-45">[45]</a>

As the muscle pigment <a href="Myoglobin" title="Myoglobin">myoglobin</a> denatures, its iron <a href="Oxidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation">oxidizes</a>, which may cause a brown discoloration near the surface of the meat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006141–146-45">[45]</a> Ongoing <a href="Proteolysis" title="Proteolysis">proteolysis</a> contributes to conditioning: <a href="Hypoxanthine" title="Hypoxanthine">hypoxanthine</a>, a breakdown product of ATP, contributes to meat's flavor and odor, as do other products of the decomposition of muscle fat and protein.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006155-48">[48]</a>

<div class="gallerytext">A <a href="Slaughterhouse" title="Slaughterhouse">slaughterhouse</a>, Finland</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext"><a href="March%C3%A9_d'Int%C3%A9r%C3%AAt_National_de_Rungis" class="mw-redirect" title="Marché d'Intérêt National de Rungis">Rungis International Market</a>, France</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">The word "<a href="Sausage" title="Sausage">sausage</a>" is derived from <a href="Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a> saussiche, from <a href="Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> salsus, "salted".<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></div>

</li>

</ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Additives">Additives</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Meat_spoilage" title="Meat spoilage">Meat spoilage</a> and <a href="Meat_preservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Meat preservation">Meat preservation</a></div>

When meat is industrially processed, <a href="Food_additive" title="Food additive">additives</a> are used to protect or modify its flavor or color, to improve its tenderness, juiciness or cohesiveness, or to aid with its <a href="Meat_preservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Meat preservation">preservation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mills,_Additives-50">[50]</a>

<caption>Additives used in industrial meat processing<a href="#cite_note-Mills,_Additives-50">[50]</a>

</caption>

<th>Additive</th>

<th>Examples</th>

<th>Function</th>

<th>Notes

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>Imparts flavor, inhibits microbial growth, extends the product's shelf life and helps <a href="Emulsifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Emulsifier">emulsifying</a> finely processed products, such as sausages.</td>

<td>The most common additive. Ready-to-eat meat products often contain 1.5 to 2.5 percent salt.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Nitrite" title="Nitrite">Nitrite</a></td>

<td><a href="Curing_meat" class="mw-redirect" title="Curing meat">Curing meat</a>, to stabilize color and flavor, and inhibit growth of spore-forming microorganisms such as <a href="Clostridium_botulinum" title="Clostridium botulinum">Clostridium botulinum</a>.</td>

<td>The use of nitrite's precursor <a href="Nitrate" title="Nitrate">nitrate</a> is now limited to a few products such as dry sausage, <a href="Prosciutto" title="Prosciutto">prosciutto</a> or <a href="Parma_ham" class="mw-redirect" title="Parma ham">parma ham</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Alkaline <a href="Polyphosphate" title="Polyphosphate">polyphosphates</a></td>

<td><a href="Sodium_tripolyphosphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Sodium tripolyphosphate">Sodium tripolyphosphate</a></td>

<td>Increase the water-binding and emulsifying ability of meat proteins, limit lipid oxidation and flavor loss, and reduce microbial growth.</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Ascorbic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Ascorbic acid">Ascorbic acid</a> (vitamin C)</td>

<td>Stabilize the color of cured meat.</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Sweeteners" class="mw-redirect" title="Sweeteners">Sweeteners</a></td>

<td>Sugar, <a href="Corn_syrup" title="Corn syrup">corn syrup</a></td>

<td>Impart a sweet flavor, bind water and assist surface browning during cooking in the <a href="Maillard_reaction" title="Maillard reaction">Maillard reaction</a>.</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Seasoning" title="Seasoning">Seasonings</a></td>

<td>Spices, herbs, essential oils</td>

<td>Impart or modify flavor.</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Flavoring" title="Flavoring">Flavorings</a></td>

<td><a href="Monosodium_glutamate" title="Monosodium glutamate">Monosodium glutamate</a></td>

<td>Strengthen existing flavors.</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Tenderizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenderizing">Tenderizers</a></td>

<td><a href="Proteolytic_enzyme" class="mw-redirect" title="Proteolytic enzyme">Proteolytic enzymes</a>, acids</td>

<td>Break down <a href="Collagen" title="Collagen">collagen</a> to make the meat more palatable for consumption.</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Antimicrobial" title="Antimicrobial">Antimicrobials</a></td>

<td><a href="Lactic_acid" title="Lactic acid">lactic</a>, <a href="Citric_acid" title="Citric acid">citric</a> and <a href="Acetic_acid" title="Acetic acid">acetic acid</a>, <a href="Calcium_sulfate" title="Calcium sulfate">calcium sulfate</a>, <a href="Cetylpyridinium_chloride" title="Cetylpyridinium chloride">cetylpyridinium chloride</a>, <a href="Lactoferrin" title="Lactoferrin">lactoferrin</a>, <a href="Bacteriocin" title="Bacteriocin">bacteriocins</a> such as <a href="Nisin" title="Nisin">nisin</a>.</td>

<td>Limit growth of <a href="Meat_spoilage" title="Meat spoilage">meat spoilage</a> bacteria</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Antioxidant" title="Antioxidant">Antioxidants</a></td>

<td>Limit <a href="Lipid_oxidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipid oxidation">lipid oxidation</a>, which would create an undesirable "off flavor".</td>

<td>Used in precooked meat products.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Acidifier" title="Acidifier">Acidifiers</a></td>

<td>Lactic acid, citric acid</td>

<td>Impart a tangy or tart flavor note, extend shelf-life, tenderize fresh meat or help with protein <a href="Denaturation_(biochemistry)" title="Denaturation (biochemistry)">denaturation</a> and moisture release in dried meat.</td>

<td>They substitute for the process of natural fermentation that acidifies some meat products such as hard <a href="Salami" title="Salami">salami</a> or <a href="Prosciutto" title="Prosciutto">prosciutto</a>.

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Consumption">Consumption</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical">Historical</h3></div>

A <a href="Bioarchaeology" title="Bioarchaeology">bioarchaeological</a> (specifically, <a href="Isotopic_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotopic analysis">isotopic analysis</a>) study of <a href="Early_medieval_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Early medieval England">early medieval England</a> found, based on the funerary record, that high-meat protein diets were extremely rare, and that (contrary to previously held assumptions) elites did not consume more meat than non-elites, and men did not consume more meat than women.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a>

In the nineteenth century, meat consumption in Britain was the highest in Europe, exceeded only by that in British colonies. In the 1830s consumption per head in Britain was about 34 kilograms (75 lb) a year, rising to 59 kilograms (130 lb) in 1912. In 1904, laborers consumed 39 kilograms (87 lb) a year while aristocrats ate 140 kilograms (300 lb). There were some 43,000 butcher's shops in Britain in 1910, with "possibly more money invested in the meat industry than in any other British business" except finance.<a href="#cite_note-Otter_2020-52">[52]</a> The US was a meat importing country by 1926.<a href="#cite_note-Otter_2020-52">[52]</a>

Truncated lifespan as a result of intensive breeding allows more meat to be produced from fewer animals. The world cattle population was about 600 million in 1929, with 700 million sheep and goats and 300 million pigs.<a href="#cite_note-Otter_2020-52">[52]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trends">Trends</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="List_of_countries_by_meat_consumption" title="List of countries by meat consumption">List of countries by meat consumption</a> and <a href="List_of_countries_by_meat_production" title="List of countries by meat production">List of countries by meat production</a></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:608px;max-width:608px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:302px;max-width:302px"><div class="thumbimage"></div><div class="thumbcaption">While meat consumption in most industrialized countries is at high, stable levels...<a href="#cite_note-Meat_Atlas-53">[53]</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:302px;max-width:302px"><div class="thumbimage"></div><div class="thumbcaption">... it is rising in emerging economies.<a href="#cite_note-Meat_Atlas-53">[53]</a></div></div></div></div></div>

<div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:912px;max-width:912px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:302px;max-width:302px"><div class="thumbimage"></div><div class="thumbcaption">Per capita annual meat consumption by region<a href="#cite_note-10.1146/annurev-resource-111820-032340-54">[54]</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:302px;max-width:302px"><div class="thumbimage"></div><div class="thumbcaption">Total annual meat consumption by region</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:302px;max-width:302px"><div class="thumbimage"></div><div class="thumbcaption">Total annual meat consumption by type of meat</div></div></div></div></div>

According to the <a href="Food_and_Agriculture_Organization" title="Food and Agriculture Organization">Food and Agriculture Organization</a>, the overall consumption for <a href="#Red_and_white_meat">white meat</a> has increased from the 20th to the 21st centuries. Poultry meat has increased by 76.6% per kilo per capita and pig meat by 19.7%. Bovine meat has decreased from 10.4 kg (22 lb 15 oz) per capita in 1990 to 9.6 kg (21 lb 3 oz) per capita in 2009.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> FAO analysis found that 357 million tonnes of meat were produced in 2021, 53% more than in 2000, with chicken meat representing more than half the increase.<a href="#cite_note-:14-56">[56]</a>

Overall, diets that include meat are the most common worldwide according to the results of a 2018 <a href="Ipsos_MORI" title="Ipsos MORI">Ipsos MORI</a> study of 16–64 years olds in 28 countries. Ipsos states "An omnivorous diet is the most common diet globally, with non-meat diets (which can include fish) followed by over a tenth of the global population." Approximately 87% of people include meat in their diet in some frequency. 73% of meat eaters included it in their diet regularly and 14% consumed meat only occasionally or infrequently.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a>

The type of meat consumed varies between different cultures. The amount and kind of meat consumed varies by income, both between countries and within a given country.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> <a href="Horse_meat" title="Horse meat">Horses</a> are commonly eaten in countries such as France,<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Italy, Germany and Japan.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Horses and other large <a href="Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a> such as <a href="Reindeer" title="Reindeer">reindeer</a> were hunted during the late <a href="Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a> in western Europe.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <a href="Dog_meat" title="Dog meat">Dogs</a> are consumed in China,<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> South Korea<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> and Vietnam.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Dogs are occasionally eaten in the <a href="Arctic" title="Arctic">Arctic</a> regions.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Historically, dog meat has been consumed in various parts of the world, such as Hawaii,<a href="#cite_note-auto-66">[66]</a> Japan,<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Switzerland<a href="#cite_note-auto-66">[66]</a> and Mexico.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> <a href="Cat_meat" title="Cat meat">Cats</a> are sometimes eaten, such as in Peru.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> <a href="Guinea_pig" title="Guinea pig">Guinea pigs</a> are raised for their flesh in the <a href="Andes" title="Andes">Andes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> <a href="Whale" title="Whale">Whales</a> and <a href="Dolphin" title="Dolphin">dolphins</a> are hunted, partly for their flesh, in several countries.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Misidentification is a risk; in 2013, products in Europe labelled as beef <a href="2013_meat_adulteration_scandal" class="mw-redirect" title="2013 meat adulteration scandal">actually contained horse meat</a>.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Methods_of_preparation">Methods of preparation</h3></div>

Meat can be cooked in many ways, including <a href="Braise" class="mw-redirect" title="Braise">braising</a>, <a href="Broiling" class="mw-redirect" title="Broiling">broiling</a>, <a href="Frying" title="Frying">frying</a>, <a href="Grilling" title="Grilling">grilling</a>, and <a href="Roasting" title="Roasting">roasting</a>.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Meat can be <a href="Curing_(food_preservation)" title="Curing (food preservation)">cured</a> by <a href="Smoking_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Smoking (food)">smoking</a>, which preserves and flavors food by exposing it to smoke from burning or smoldering wood.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Other methods of curing include <a href="Pickling" title="Pickling">pickling</a>, <a href="Salted_meat" class="mw-redirect" title="Salted meat">salting</a>, and air-drying.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> Some recipes call for raw meat; <a href="Steak_tartare" title="Steak tartare">steak tartare</a> is made from minced raw beef.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <a href="P%C3%A2t%C3%A9" title="Pâté">Pâtés</a> are made with ground meat and fat, often including <a href="Liver" title="Liver">liver</a>.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a>

<li class="gallerycaption">Types of meat and techniques used to prepare it</li>

<div class="gallerytext"><a href="Spit-roasting" class="mw-redirect" title="Spit-roasting">Spit-roasting</a> a lamb and a suckling pig</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Geese being <a href="Smokehouse" title="Smokehouse">smoked in a smokehouse</a></div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext"><a href="Stewing" class="mw-redirect" title="Stewing">Stewing</a> mutton with vegetables</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext"><a href="Frying" title="Frying">Frying</a> pork sausages in a pan</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Raw beef: <a href="Steak_tartare" title="Steak tartare">steak tartare</a></div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Duck <a href="Liver_p%C3%A2t%C3%A9" title="Liver pâté">liver pâté</a></div>

</li>

</ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Health_effects">Health effects</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Red_meat#Health_effects" title="Red meat">Red meat § Health effects</a></div>

Meat, in particular red and processed meat, is linked to a variety of health risks.<a href="#cite_note-who-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-Staph-79">[79]</a> The 2015–2020 <a href="Dietary_Guidelines_for_Americans" title="Dietary Guidelines for Americans">Dietary Guidelines for Americans</a> asked men and teenage boys to increase their consumption of vegetables or other underconsumed foods (fruits, whole grains, and dairy) while reducing intake of protein foods (meats, poultry, and eggs) that they currently overconsume.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contamination">Contamination</h3></div>

Toxic compounds including <a href="Heavy_metals" title="Heavy metals">heavy metals</a>, <a href="Mycotoxin" title="Mycotoxin">mycotoxins</a>, <a href="Pesticide" title="Pesticide">pesticide</a> residues, <a href="Polychlorinated_dibenzodioxins" title="Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins">dioxins</a>, <a href="Polychlorinated_biphenyl" title="Polychlorinated biphenyl">polychlorinated biphenyl</a> can contaminate meat. Processed, smoked and cooked meat may contain <a href="Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen">carcinogens</a> such as <a href="Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbons" class="mw-redirect" title="Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons">polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PAHs-81">[81]</a> Toxins may be introduced to meat as part of animal feed, as veterinary drug residues, or during processing and cooking. Such compounds are often metabolized in the body to form harmful by-products. Negative effects depend on the individual genome, diet, and history of the consumer.<a href="#cite_note-Püssa-82">[82]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cancer">Cancer</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Red_meat#Cancer" title="Red meat">Red meat § Cancer</a></div>

The consumption of processed and red meat carries an increased risk of cancer. The <a href="International_Agency_for_Research_on_Cancer" title="International Agency for Research on Cancer">International Agency for Research on Cancer</a> (IARC), a specialized agency of the <a href="World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO), classified processed meat (e.g., bacon, ham, hot dogs, sausages) as, "carcinogenic to humans (Group 1), based on sufficient evidence in humans that the consumption of processed meat causes colorectal cancer."<a href="#cite_note-who-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> IARC classified red meat as "probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 2A), based on limited evidence that the consumption of red meat causes cancer in humans and strong mechanistic evidence supporting a carcinogenic effect."<a href="#cite_note-WHO-20151026-84">[84]</a>

<a href="Cancer_Research_UK" title="Cancer Research UK">Cancer Research UK</a>, <a href="National_Health_Service" title="National Health Service">National Health Service</a> (NHS) and the <a href="National_Cancer_Institute" title="National Cancer Institute">National Cancer Institute</a> have stated that red and processed meat intake increases risk of <a href="Bowel_cancer" class="mw-redirect" title="Bowel cancer">bowel cancer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> The <a href="American_Cancer_Society" title="American Cancer Society">American Cancer Society</a> in their "Diet and Physical Activity Guideline", stated "evidence that red and processed meats increase cancer risk has existed for decades, and many health organizations recommend limiting or avoiding these foods."<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> The <a href="Canadian_Cancer_Society" title="Canadian Cancer Society">Canadian Cancer Society</a> have stated that "eating red and processed meat increases cancer risk".<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a>

A 2021 review found an increase of 11–51% risk of multiple cancer per 100g/d increment of red meat, and an increase of 8–72% risk of multiple cancer per 50g/d increment of processed meat.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a>

Cooking muscle meat creates <a href="Heterocyclic_amine" title="Heterocyclic amine">heterocyclic amines</a> (HCAs), which are thought to increase cancer risk in humans. Researchers at the National Cancer Institute published results of a study which found that human subjects who ate beef rare or medium-rare had less than one third the risk of stomach cancer than those who ate beef medium-well or well-done.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> While eating muscle meat raw may be the only way to avoid HCAs fully, the <a href="National_Cancer_Institute" title="National Cancer Institute">National Cancer Institute</a> states that cooking meat below 100 °C (212 °F) creates "negligible amounts" of HCAs. <a href="Microwaving" class="mw-redirect" title="Microwaving">Microwaving</a> meat before cooking may reduce HCAs by 90%.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> <a href="Nitrosamine" title="Nitrosamine">Nitrosamines</a>, present in processed and cooked foods, are carcinogenic, being linked to colon cancer. <a href="Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbon" title="Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon">Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons</a>, present in processed, smoked and cooked foods, are similarly carcinogenic.<a href="#cite_note-PAHs-81">[81]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bacterial_contamination">Bacterial contamination</h3></div>

Bacterial contamination has been seen with meat products. A 2011 study by the <a href="Translational_Genomics_Research_Institute" title="Translational Genomics Research Institute">Translational Genomics Research Institute</a> showed that nearly half (47%) of the meat and poultry in U.S. grocery stores were contaminated with <a href="Staphylococcus_aureus" title="Staphylococcus aureus">S. aureus</a>, with more than half (52%) of those bacteria resistant to antibiotics.<a href="#cite_note-Staph-79">[79]</a> A 2018 investigation by the <a href="Bureau_of_Investigative_Journalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Bureau of Investigative Journalism">Bureau of Investigative Journalism</a> and <a href="The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a> found that around 15 percent of the US population suffers from foodborne illnesses every year. The investigation highlighted unsanitary conditions in US-based meat plants, which included meat products covered in excrement and abscesses "filled with pus".<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a>

Complete cooking and the careful avoidance of recontamination reduce the risk of bacterial infections from meat.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diabetes">Diabetes</h3></div>

Consumption of 100 g/day of red meat and 50 g/day of processed meat is associated with an increased risk of <a href="Diabetes" title="Diabetes">diabetes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Giosuè_Calabrese_Riccardi_Vaccaro_2022-95">[95]</a>

<a href="Diabetes_UK" title="Diabetes UK">Diabetes UK</a> advises people to limit their intake of red and processed meat.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Infectious_diseases">Infectious diseases</h3></div>

Meat production and trade substantially increase risks for infectious diseases (<a href="Zoonosis" title="Zoonosis">zoonosis</a>), including <a href="Pandemic_prevention" title="Pandemic prevention">of pandemics</a>, whether though contact with wild and farmed animals, or via husbandry's environmental impact.<a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109341-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> For example, <a href="Avian_influenza" title="Avian influenza">avian influenza</a> from poultry meat production is a threat to human health.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> Furthermore, the use of antibiotics in meat production contributes to <a href="Antimicrobial_resistance" title="Antimicrobial resistance">antimicrobial resistance</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> – which contributes to millions of deaths<a href="#cite_note-:8-103">[103]</a> – and makes it harder to control infectious diseases.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Changes_in_consumer_behavior">Changes in consumer behavior</h3></div>

In response to changing <a href="Meat_price" title="Meat price">meat prices</a> as well as health concerns about <a href="Lipid_hypothesis" title="Lipid hypothesis">saturated fat and cholesterol</a>, consumers have altered their consumption of various meats. Consumption of beef in the United States between 1970 and 1974 and 1990–1994 dropped by 21%, while consumption of <a href="Chicken_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicken (food)">chicken</a> increased by 90%.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heart_disease">Heart disease</h3></div>

Except for poultry, at 50 g/day unprocessed red and processed meat are risk factors for ischemic heart disease, increasing the risk by about 9 and 18% respectively.<a href="#cite_note-10.1080/10408398.2021.1949575-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Environmental_impact">Environmental impact</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Environmental_impacts_of_animal_agriculture" title="Environmental impacts of animal agriculture">Environmental impacts of animal agriculture</a></div>

A multitude of serious negative environmental effects are associated with meat production. Among these are greenhouse gas emissions, <a href="Fossil_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil energy">fossil energy</a> use, water use, water quality changes, and effects on grazed ecosystems. They are so significant that according to <a href="University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a> researchers, "a <a href="Veganism" title="Veganism">vegan</a> diet is probably the single biggest way to reduce your impact on planet Earth... far bigger than cutting down on your flights or buying an electric car".<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> However, this is often ignored in the public consciousness and in plans to tackle serious environmental issues such as the <a href="Climate_crisis" title="Climate crisis">climate crisis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a>

The livestock sector may be the largest source of <a href="Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water pollution</a> (due to animal wastes, fertilizers, pesticides), and it contributes to emergence of antibiotic resistance. It accounts for over 8% of global human water use. It is a significant driver of <a href="Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">biodiversity loss</a> and <a href="Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a>, as it causes <a href="Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a>,<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> ocean <a href="Dead_zone_(ecology)" title="Dead zone (ecology)">dead zones</a>,<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> species extinction,<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> <a href="Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">land degradation</a>, pollution, <a href="Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a> and <a href="Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a>.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-Machovina_2015_419–431-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1038/s43016-021-00358-x-118">[118]</a> Cattle farming was estimated to be responsible for 80 per cent of Amazon deforestation in 2008 due to the clearing of forests to grow animal feed (especially soya) and cattle ranching.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a>

Environmental effects vary among livestock production systems.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> Grazing of livestock can be beneficial for some wildlife species, but not for others.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Targeted grazing of livestock is used as a food-producing alternative to herbicide use in some vegetation management.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a>

Meat production is by far the biggest user of land, as it accounts for nearly 40% of the global land surface.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> Just in the contiguous United States, 34% of its land area (265 million hectares or 654 million acres) are used as pasture and rangeland, mostly feeding livestock, not counting 158 million hectares (391 million acres) of cropland (20%), some of which is used for producing feed for livestock.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> Roughly 75% of <a href="Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforested</a> land around the globe is used for livestock <a href="Pasture" title="Pasture">pasture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> Deforestation from practices like <a href="Slash-and-burn" class="mw-redirect" title="Slash-and-burn">slash-and-burn</a> releases CO2 and removes the <a href="Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sink</a> of grown tropical forest ecosystems which substantially mitigate climate change.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> Land use is a major pressure on pressure on <a href="Soil_conservation" title="Soil conservation">fertile soils</a> which is important for global <a href="Food_security" title="Food security">food security</a>.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_change">Climate change</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Livestock's_Long_Shadow" title="Livestock's Long Shadow">Livestock's Long Shadow</a></div>

The rising global consumption of <a href="Emission_intensity" title="Emission intensity">carbon-intensive</a> meat products has "exploded the global carbon footprint of agriculture," according to some top scientists.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> Meat production is responsible for some 35% of global emissions of greenhouse gases, and 60% of the greenhouse gases attributable to food production.<a href="#cite_note-Milman_2021-135">[135]</a>

Some nations show very different impacts to counterparts within the same group, with Brazil and Australia having emissions over 200% higher than the average of their respective income groups, driven by meat consumption.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a>

According to the <a href="Assessing_the_Environmental_Impacts_of_Consumption_and_Production" title="Assessing the Environmental Impacts of Consumption and Production">Assessing the Environmental Impacts of Consumption and Production</a> report produced by <a href="United_Nations_Environment_Programme" title="United Nations Environment Programme">United Nations Environment Programme</a>'s (UNEP) international panel for sustainable resource management, a worldwide transition in the direction of a meat and dairy free diet is indispensable if adverse global climate change were to be prevented.<a href="#cite_note-TG-20100602-137">[137]</a> A 2019 report in <a href="The_Lancet" title="The Lancet">The Lancet</a> recommended that global meat (and sugar) consumption be reduced by 50 percent to <a href="Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">mitigate climate change</a>.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> Meat consumption in Western societies needs to be reduced by up to 90% according to a 2018 study published in <a href="Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a>.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> The 2019 special report by the <a href="Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> called for significantly reducing meat consumption, particularly in wealthy countries, in order to mitigate and adapt to climate change.<a href="#cite_note-10.1038/d41586-019-02409-7-140">[140]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biodiversity_loss">Biodiversity loss</h3></div>

Meat consumption is a primary contributor to the <a href="Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">sixth mass extinction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Machovina_2015_419–431-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> A 2017 study by the <a href="World_Wildlife_Fund" class="mw-redirect" title="World Wildlife Fund">World Wildlife Fund</a> found that 60% of global <a href="Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a> is attributable to meat-based diets, in particular from the use of land for feed crops, resulting in large-scale loss of habitats and species.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> Livestock make up 60% of the <a href="Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">biomass</a> of all mammals on earth, followed by humans (36%) and wild mammals (4%).<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> In November 2017, 15,364 world scientists signed a <a href="World_Scientists'_Warning_to_Humanity" title="World Scientists' Warning to Humanity">Warning to Humanity</a> calling for a drastic reduction in per capita consumption of meat and "dietary shifts towards mostly plant-based foods".<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> The 2019 <a href="Global_Assessment_Report_on_Biodiversity_and_Ecosystem_Services" title="Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services">Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services</a> recommended a reduction in meat consumption to mitigate biodiversity loss.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> A 2021 <a href="Chatham_House" title="Chatham House">Chatham House</a> report asserted that a shift towards plant-based diets would free up land for the restoration of ecosystems and biodiversity.<a href="#cite_note-Carrington-147">[147]</a>

Meat consumption is predicted to rise as the human population increases and becomes more affluent; this in turn would increase greenhouse gas emissions and further reduce biodiversity.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reducing_environmental_impact">Reducing environmental impact</h3></div>

The environmental impact of meat production can be reduced on the farm by conversion of human-inedible residues of food crops.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> Manure from meat-producing livestock is used as fertilizer. Substitution of animal manures for synthetic fertilizers in crop production can be environmentally significant, as between 43 and 88 MJ of fossil fuel energy are used per kg of nitrogen in manufacture of synthetic nitrogenous fertilizers.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reducing_meat_consumption">Reducing meat consumption</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Sustainable_consumption#Sustainable_food_consumption" title="Sustainable consumption">Sustainable consumption § Sustainable food consumption</a></div>

The IPCC and others have stated that meat production has to be reduced substantially for any sufficient <a href="Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">mitigation of</a> climate change and, at least initially, largely through <a href="Sustainable_consumption#Shifting_consumption" title="Sustainable consumption">shifts</a> towards <a href="Plant-based_diet" title="Plant-based diet">plant-based diets</a> where meat consumption is high.<a href="#cite_note-10.1038/d41586-019-02409-7-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1038/s43016-021-00431-5-152">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1146/annurev-resource-111820-032340-54">[54]</a> <a href="Personal_carbon_trading" title="Personal carbon trading">Personal carbon allowances</a> that <a href="Rationing" title="Rationing">allow a certain amount</a> of free meat consumption per person would be a form of restriction, <a href="Meat_tax" title="Meat tax">meat taxes</a> would be a type of fiscal mechanism. Meat can be replaced by, for example, high-protein iron-rich low-emission <a href="Legume" title="Legume">legumes</a> and common fungi, <a href="Dietary_supplement" title="Dietary supplement">dietary supplements</a> (e.g. of vitamin B12) and <a href="Fortified_food" class="mw-redirect" title="Fortified food">fortified foods</a>,<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> <a href="Cultured_meat" title="Cultured meat">cultured meat</a>, <a href="Microbial_food_cultures" title="Microbial food cultures">microbial foods</a>,<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> <a href="Mycoprotein" title="Mycoprotein">mycoprotein</a>,<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> <a href="List_of_meat_substitutes" title="List of meat substitutes">meat substitutes</a>, and other alternatives,<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> such as those based on mushrooms,<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> legumes (pulses), and other food sources.<a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.appet.2020.105058-158">[158]</a> Land previously used for meat production can be <a href="Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">rewilded</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10.1038/s43016-021-00431-5-152">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1038/s43016-021-00358-x-118">[118]</a> The biologists <a href="Rodolfo_Dirzo" title="Rodolfo Dirzo">Rodolfo Dirzo</a>, Gerardo Ceballos, and <a href="Paul_R._Ehrlich" title="Paul R. Ehrlich">Paul R. Ehrlich</a> state that it is the "massive planetary monopoly of industrial meat production that needs to be curbed" while respecting the cultural traditions of indigenous peoples, for whom meat is an important source of protein.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_aspects">Cultural aspects</h2></div>

Meat is part of the human diet in most cultures, where it often has symbolic meaning and important social functions.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> Some people choose not to eat meat (vegetarianism) or any food made from animals (<a href="Veganism" title="Veganism">veganism</a>). The reasons for not eating all or some meat may include ethical objections to killing animals for food, health concerns, environmental concerns or religious <a href="Dietary_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Dietary laws">dietary laws</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethical_issues">Ethical issues</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Ethics_of_eating_meat" title="Ethics of eating meat">Ethics of eating meat</a></div>

Ethical issues regarding the consumption of meat include objecting to the act of killing animals or to the <a href="Intensive_agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Intensive agriculture">agricultural practices</a> used in meat production. Reasons for objecting to killing animals for consumption may include <a href="Animal_rights" title="Animal rights">animal rights</a>, <a href="Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">environmental ethics</a>, or an aversion to inflicting <a href="Pain" title="Pain">pain</a> or harm on <a href="Sentience" title="Sentience">sentient animals</a>. Some people, while not vegetarians, refuse to eat the flesh of certain animals for cultural or religious reasons.<a href="#cite_note-Sandler_2014-161">[161]</a>

The founders of <a href="Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a> disagreed about the ethics of eating meat. <a href="Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s <a href="Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a> has <a href="Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> describe the ideal state as vegetarian.<a href="#cite_note-Buscemi-162">[162]</a> <a href="Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a> believed that humans and animals were equal and therefore disapproved of meat consumption, as did <a href="Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, whereas <a href="Zeno_of_Elea" title="Zeno of Elea">Zeno</a> and <a href="Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a> were vegetarian but allowed meat-eating in their philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-Buscemi-162">[162]</a> Conversely, <a href="Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s <a href="Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a> assert that animals, as inferior beings,<a href="#cite_note-Aristotle-163">[163]</a> exist to serve humans, including as food.<a href="#cite_note-Aristotle-163">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-Buscemi-162">[162]</a> <a href="Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustine">Augustine</a> drew on Aristotle to argue that the universe's natural hierarchy allows humans to eat animals, and animals to eat plants.<a href="#cite_note-Buscemi-162">[162]</a> <a href="Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> philosophers were likewise divided. <a href="Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a> wrote that animals were merely animated machines, while <a href="Kant" class="mw-redirect" title="Kant">Kant</a> considered them inferior beings for lack of discernment: means rather than ends.<a href="#cite_note-Buscemi-162">[162]</a> But <a href="Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> and <a href="Rousseau" class="mw-redirect" title="Rousseau">Rousseau</a> disagreed; Rousseau argued that meat-eating is a social rather than a natural act, because children are not interested in meat.<a href="#cite_note-Buscemi-162">[162]</a>

Later philosophers examined the changing practices of eating meat in the <a href="Modern_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern age">modern age</a> as part of a process of detachment from animals as living beings. <a href="Norbert_Elias" title="Norbert Elias">Norbert Elias</a>, for instance, noted that in medieval times cooked animals were brought to the table whole, but that since the <a href="Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> only the edible parts are served, which are no longer recognizably part of an animal.<a href="#cite_note-Buscemi-162">[162]</a> Modern eaters, according to <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/No%C3%ABlie_Vialles" class="extiw external" title="fr:Noëlie Vialles">Noëlie Vialles</a>, demand an "<a href="Ellipsis_(linguistics)" title="Ellipsis (linguistics)">ellipsis</a>" between meat and dead animals.<a href="#cite_note-Buscemi-162">[162]</a> <a href="Fernand_Braudel" title="Fernand Braudel">Fernand Braudel</a> wrote that since the European diet of the 15th and 16th century was particularly heavy in meat, European <a href="Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a> helped export meat-eating across the globe, as colonized peoples took up the culinary habits of their colonizers.<a href="#cite_note-Buscemi-162">[162]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_traditions">Religious traditions</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Vegetarianism_and_religion" title="Vegetarianism and religion">Vegetarianism and religion</a></div>

Among the Indian religions, <a href="Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> opposes the eating of meat, while some <a href="Buddhist_vegetarianism" title="Buddhist vegetarianism">schools of Buddhism</a> and <a href="Hinduism#Vegetarian_Hindus" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> advocate but do not mandate vegetarianism.<a href="#cite_note-Tähtinen_1976-164">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-Walters_Portmess_2001-165">[165]</a> Some <a href="Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikh</a> groups oppose eating any meat.<a href="#cite_note-Takhar2005-166">[166]</a> Jewish <a href="Kashrut" title="Kashrut">Kashrut</a> dietary rules allow certain (<a href="Kosher" class="mw-redirect" title="Kosher">kosher</a>) meat and forbid other (<a href="Treif" class="mw-redirect" title="Treif">treif</a>) meat.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> Similar rules apply in <a href="Islamic_dietary_laws" title="Islamic dietary laws">Islamic dietary laws</a>: The <a href="Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> explicitly forbids meat from animals that die naturally, blood, and the meat of pigs, which are <a href="Haram" title="Haram">haram</a>, forbidden, as opposed to <a href="Halal" title="Halal">halal</a>, allowed.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychology">Psychology</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Psychology_of_eating_meat" title="Psychology of eating meat">Psychology of eating meat</a></div>

Research in <a href="Applied_psychology" title="Applied psychology">applied psychology</a> has investigated meat eating in relation to <a href="Morality" title="Morality">morality</a>, <a href="Emotion" title="Emotion">emotions</a>, <a href="Cognition" title="Cognition">cognition</a>, and personality.<a href="#cite_note-Loughnan2014-169">[169]</a> Psychological research suggests meat eating is correlated with <a href="Masculinity" title="Masculinity">masculinity</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Rozin2012-170">[170]</a> and reduced <a href="Big_Five_personality_traits#Openness_to_experience" title="Big Five personality traits">openness to experience</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Keller2015-171">[171]</a> Research into the <a href="Consumer_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumer psychology">consumer psychology</a> of meat is relevant both to <a href="Meat_industry" title="Meat industry">meat industry</a> marketing<a href="#cite_note-Richardson1994-172">[172]</a> and to those advocating eating less meat.<a href="#cite_note-Klöckner_2014-173">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schösler-174">[174]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gender">Gender</h3></div>

Unlike most other foods, meat is not perceived as <a href="Gender-neutral" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender-neutral">gender-neutral</a>; it is associated with men and <a href="Masculinity" title="Masculinity">masculinity</a>. Sociological research, ranging from African tribal societies to contemporary <a href="Barbecue" title="Barbecue">barbecue</a>, indicates that men are much more likely to participate in preparing meat than other food.<a href="#cite_note-Buscemi-162">[162]</a> This has been attributed to the influence of traditional male <a href="Gender_role" title="Gender role">gender roles</a>, in view of what <a href="Jack_Goody" title="Jack Goody">Jack Goody</a> calls a "male familiarity with killing", or as <a href="Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Claude Lévi-Strauss</a> suggests, that <a href="Roasting" title="Roasting">roasting</a> (meat) is more violent than <a href="Boiling" title="Boiling">boiling</a> (grains and vegetables).<a href="#cite_note-Buscemi-162">[162]</a> In modern societies, men tend to consume more meat than women, and men often prefer <a href="Red_meat" title="Red meat">red meat</a> whereas women tend to prefer chicken and fish.<a href="#cite_note-Buscemi-162">[162]</a>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;">

<ul><li><a href="Bushmeat" title="Bushmeat">Bushmeat</a></li>

<li><a href="Culinary_name" title="Culinary name">Culinary name</a></li>

<li><a href="Cartilage" title="Cartilage">Cartilage</a> (also called gristle)</li>

<li><a href="List_of_meat_dishes" title="List of meat dishes">List of meat dishes</a></li>

<li><a href="Mechanically_separated_meat" title="Mechanically separated meat">Mechanically separated meat</a></li>

<li><a href="Mystery_meat" title="Mystery meat">Mystery meat</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div class="reflist">

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward20061–2-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward20061–2_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward20061–2_1-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLawrieLedward2006">Lawrie & Ledward 2006</a>, pp. 1–2.

</li>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("./mw/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("./mw/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("./mw/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("./mw/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/meat">"Meat definition and meaning"</a>. Collins English Dictionary. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170712041548/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/meat">Archived</a> from the original on July 12, 2017. Retrieved June 16, 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Definition_of_MEAT-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Definition_of_MEAT_3-0">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/meat">"Definition of MEAT"</a>. merriam-webster.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180319025828/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/meat">Archived</a> from the original on March 19, 2018. Retrieved June 16, 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-McHugo_Dover_MacHugh_2019-4"><a href="#cite_ref-McHugo_Dover_MacHugh_2019_4-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMcHugoDoverMacHugh2019" class="citation journal cs1">McHugo, Gillian P.; Dover, Michael J.; MacHugh, David E. (December 2, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6889691">"Unlocking the origins and biology of domestic animals using ancient DNA and paleogenomics"</a>. BMC Biology. 17 (1): 98. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs12915-019-0724-7">10.1186/s12915-019-0724-7</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6889691">6889691</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31791340">31791340</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Lawler_Adler_2012-5"><a href="#cite_ref-Lawler_Adler_2012_5-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLawlerAdler2012" class="citation journal cs1">Lawler, Andrew; Adler, Jerry (June 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/how-the-chicken-conquered-the-world-87583657/">"How the Chicken Conquered the World"</a>. <a href="Smithsonian_(magazine)" title="Smithsonian (magazine)">Smithsonian</a> (June 2012).</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-MacHugh_Larson_Orlando_2017-6"><a href="#cite_ref-MacHugh_Larson_Orlando_2017_6-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMacHughLarsonOrlando2017" class="citation journal cs1">MacHugh, David E.; Larson, Greger; Orlando, Ludovic (2017). "Taming the Past: Ancient DNA and the Study of Animal Domestication". <a href="Annual_Review_of_Animal_Biosciences" title="Annual Review of Animal Biosciences">Annual Review of Animal Biosciences</a>. 5: 329–351. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-animal-022516-022747">10.1146/annurev-animal-022516-022747</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27813680">27813680</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:21991146">21991146</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFZatta" class="citation web cs1">Zatta, Paolo. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131116060714/http://www.unsystem.org/SCN/archives/scnnews21/ch04.htm">"The History of Factory Farming"</a>. United Nations. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unsystem.org/SCN/archives/scnnews21/ch04.htm#TopOfPage">the original</a> on November 16, 2013.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Danielle_Nierenburg_2005-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Danielle_Nierenburg_2005_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Danielle_Nierenburg_2005_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Danielle_Nierenburg_2005_8-2">c</a> <cite id="CITEREFNierenburg2005" class="citation journal cs1">Nierenburg, Danielle (2005). "Happier Meals: Rethinking the Global Meat Industry". <a href="Worldwatch_Institute" title="Worldwatch Institute">Worldwatch Paper</a>. 171: 5.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200610–14-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200610–14_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200610–14_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200610–14_9-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200610–14_9-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200610–14_9-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200610–14_9-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFLawrieLedward2006">Lawrie & Ledward 2006</a>, pp. 10–14.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.foodnavigator.com/Market-Trends/Demand-for-organic-meat-on-the-rise-says-Soil-Association">"Demand for organic meat on the rise, says Soil Association"</a>. July 28, 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161012021608/http://www.foodnavigator.com/Market-Trends/Demand-for-organic-meat-on-the-rise-says-Soil-Association">Archived</a> from the original on October 12, 2016. Retrieved January 21, 2018.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200617–22-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200617–22_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200617–22_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200617–22_11-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200617–22_11-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200617–22_11-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200617–22_11-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200617–22_11-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200617–22_11-7">h</a> <a href="#CITEREFLawrieLedward2006">Lawrie & Ledward 2006</a>, pp. 17–22.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200622–23-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200622–23_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLawrieLedward2006">Lawrie & Ledward 2006</a>, pp. 22–23.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200625–30-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200625–30_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200625–30_13-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200625–30_13-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFLawrieLedward2006">Lawrie & Ledward 2006</a>, pp. 25–30.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-09-24/rspca-on-free-range-court-case/5769542">"RSPCA says egg industry is 'misleading the public' on free range"</a>. <a href="Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Australian Broadcasting Corporation">Australian Broadcasting Corporation</a>. September 24, 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161101051034/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-09-24/rspca-on-free-range-court-case/5769542">Archived</a> from the original on November 1, 2016. Retrieved May 26, 2015.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2013/06/27/195639341/what-the-rise-of-cage-free-eggs-means-for-chickens">"What The Rise Of Cage-Free Eggs Means For Chickens"</a>. <a href="NPR" title="NPR">NPR</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210211010506/http://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2013/06/27/195639341/what-the-rise-of-cage-free-eggs-means-for-chickens">Archived</a> from the original on February 11, 2021. Retrieved May 26, 2015.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKelto2014" class="citation web cs1">Kelto, Anders (December 23, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2014/12/23/370377902/farm-fresh-natural-eggs-not-always-what-they-re-cracked-up-to-be">"Farm Fresh? Natural? Eggs Not Always What They're Cracked Up To Be"</a>. <a href="NPR" title="NPR">NPR</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201103121635/https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2014/12/23/370377902/farm-fresh-natural-eggs-not-always-what-they-re-cracked-up-to-be">Archived</a> from the original on November 3, 2020. Retrieved May 26, 2015.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBartlettHolmesPetrovanWilliams2022" class="citation journal cs1">Bartlett, Harriet; Holmes, Mark A.; Petrovan, Silviu O.; Williams, David R.; Wood, James L. N.; Balmford, Andrew (June 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9214290">"Understanding the relative risks of zoonosis emergence under contrasting approaches to meeting livestock product demand"</a>. <a href="Royal_Society_Open_Science" title="Royal Society Open Science">Royal Society Open Science</a>. 9 (6): 211573. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022RSOS....911573B">2022RSOS....911573B</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsos.211573">10.1098/rsos.211573</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9214290">9214290</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35754996">35754996</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131023062150/http://www.ciwf.org.uk/farm_animals/poultry/meat_chickens/welfare_issues.aspx">"Compassion in World Farming – Meat chickens – Welfare issues"</a>. <a href="Compassion_in_World_Farming" title="Compassion in World Farming">Compassion In World Farming</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ciwf.org.uk/farm_animals/poultry/meat_chickens/welfare_issues.aspx">the original</a> on October 23, 2013. Retrieved October 22, 2013.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200631–33-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200631–33_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200631–33_19-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200631–33_19-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFLawrieLedward2006">Lawrie & Ledward 2006</a>, pp. 31–33.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200635–39-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200635–39_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200635–39_20-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLawrieLedward2006">Lawrie & Ledward 2006</a>, pp. 35–39.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAielloPatelLasagna2018" class="citation journal cs1">Aiello, D.; Patel, K.; Lasagna, E. (December 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://centaur.reading.ac.uk/77388/1/Aiello_et_al_revised_not_highlighted.pdf">"The myostatin gene: an overview of mechanisms of action and its relevance to livestock animals"</a> (PDF). Animal Genetics. 49 (6): 505–519. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fage.12696">10.1111/age.12696</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30125951">30125951</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:52051853">52051853</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200694–126-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200694–126_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLawrieLedward2006">Lawrie & Ledward 2006</a>, p. 94–126.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006126-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006126_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLawrieLedward2006">Lawrie & Ledward 2006</a>, p. 126.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200676–80-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200676–80_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200676–80_24-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200676–80_24-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200676–80_24-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200676–80_24-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200676–80_24-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFLawrieLedward2006">Lawrie & Ledward 2006</a>, pp. 76–80.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200682-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200682_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200682_25-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLawrieLedward2006">Lawrie & Ledward 2006</a>, p. 82.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200693-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200693_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200693_26-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLawrieLedward2006">Lawrie & Ledward 2006</a>, p. 93.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fitday.com/fitness-articles/nutrition/healthy-eating/white-meat-vs-red-meat.html">"White Meat vs. Red Meat / Nutrition / Healthy Eating"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170505011359/http://www.fitday.com/fitness-articles/nutrition/healthy-eating/white-meat-vs-red-meat.html">Archived</a> from the original on May 5, 2017. Retrieved April 25, 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-beef.org-28"><a href="#cite_ref-beef.org_28-0">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080227150725/http://www.beef.org/uDocs/whatyoumisswithoutmeat638.pdf">"Don't Miss Out on the Benefits of Naturally Nutrient-Rich Lean Beef"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.beef.org/uDocs/whatyoumisswithoutmeat638.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on February 27, 2008. Retrieved January 11, 2008.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-k2_foods-29"><a href="#cite_ref-k2_foods_29-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSchurgersVermeer2000" class="citation journal cs1">Schurgers, L.J.; Vermeer, C. (2000). "Determination of phylloquinone and menaquinones in food. Effect of food matrix on circulating vitamin K concentrations". Haemostasis. 30 (6): 298–307. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1159%2F000054147">10.1159/000054147</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11356998">11356998</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:84592720">84592720</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/foodnut/09333.html">"Dietary Fiber"</a>. Ext.colostate.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130628045019/http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/FOODNUT/09333.html">Archived</a> from the original on June 28, 2013. Retrieved May 1, 2010.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFU.S._Meat_Animal_Research_Center,_ARS,_USDA1994" class="citation web cs1"><a href="U.S._Meat_Animal_Research_Center" title="U.S. Meat Animal Research Center">U.S. Meat Animal Research Center</a>, ARS, USDA (September 9, 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/30400510/1994723145.pdf">"Effect of Marbling Degree on Beef Palatability in Bos taurus and Bos indicus Cattle"</a> (PDF). <a href="United_States_Department_of_Agriculture" title="United States Department of Agriculture">USDA</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130515180849/http://www.ars.usda.gov/SP2UserFiles/Place/54380530/1994723145.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on May 15, 2013. Retrieved September 17, 2006.</cite><code class="cs1-code">{{cite web}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

</li>

<li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHorowitz2005" class="citation book cs1">Horowitz, Roger (2005). Putting Meat on the American Table: Taste, Technology, Transformation. The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 4.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/2646170/nutrients">"Chicken, breast, boneless, skinless, raw"</a>. FoodData Central, USDA. Retrieved February 17, 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/172617/nutrients">"Lamb, New Zealand, imported, ground lamb, raw"</a>. FoodData Central, USDA. Retrieved February 17, 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/174036/nutrients">"Beef, ground, 80% lean meat / 20% fat, raw"</a>. FoodData Central, USDA. Retrieved February 17, 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> Ann Yong-Geun <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wolf.ok.ac.kr/~annyg/report/r2.htm">"Dog Meat Foods in Korea"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20071007160723/http://wolf.ok.ac.kr/~annyg/report/r2.htm">Archived</a> October 7, 2007, at Wikiwix, Table 4. Composition of dog meat and Bosintang (in 100g, raw meat), Korean Journal of Food and Nutrition 12(4) 397 – 408 (1999).

</li>

<li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/175086/nutrients">"Game meat, horse, raw"</a>. FoodData Central, USDA. Retrieved February 17, 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/index.html">"FoodData Central"</a>. fdc.nal.usda.gov. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191203185131/https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on December 3, 2019. Retrieved October 25, 2019.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191025172925/https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/337051/nutrients">"FoodData Central"</a>. fdc.nal.usda.gov. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/337051/nutrients">the original</a> on October 25, 2019. Retrieved October 26, 2019.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FAOSTAT_2021-40">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FAOSTAT_2021_40-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FAOSTAT_2021_40-1">b</a> <cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4060/cb4477en">World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2021</a>. Rome: FAO. 2021. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4060%2Fcb4477en">10.4060/cb4477en</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-92-5-134332-6</bdi>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:240163091">240163091</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QL">"FAOSTAT"</a>. Food and Agriculture Organization. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170511194947/http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QL">Archived</a> from the original on May 11, 2017. Retrieved October 25, 2019.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/may/21/human-race-just-001-of-all-life-but-has-destroyed-over-80-of-wild-mammals-study">"Humans just 0.01% of all life but have destroyed 83% of wild mammals – study"</a>. The Guardian. May 21, 2018. Retrieved December 30, 2022.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006129–130-43">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006129–130_43-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006129–130_43-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006129–130_43-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006129–130_43-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFLawrieLedward2006">Lawrie & Ledward 2006</a>, pp. 129–130.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006134–138-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006134–138_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006134–138_44-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006134–138_44-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006134–138_44-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006134–138_44-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006134–138_44-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFLawrieLedward2006">Lawrie & Ledward 2006</a>, pp. 134–138.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006141–146-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006141–146_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006141–146_45-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006141–146_45-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006141–146_45-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006141–146_45-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006141–146_45-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFLawrieLedward2006">Lawrie & Ledward 2006</a>, pp. 141–146.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200687-46"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200687_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLawrieLedward2006">Lawrie & Ledward 2006</a>, p. 87.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200690-47"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward200690_47-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLawrieLedward2006">Lawrie & Ledward 2006</a>, p. 90.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006155-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrieLedward2006155_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLawrieLedward2006">Lawrie & Ledward 2006</a>, p. 155.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=sausage&searchmode=none">"Sausage"</a>. <a href="Online_Etymology_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a>. October 16, 1920. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121021020552/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=sausage&searchmode=none">Archived</a> from the original on October 21, 2012. Retrieved January 31, 2012.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Mills,_Additives-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mills,_Additives_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mills,_Additives_50-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFMills2004" class="citation book cs1">Mills, E. (2004). "Additives". Encyclopedia of Meat Sciences (1st ed.). Oxford: <a href="Elsevier" title="Elsevier">Elsevier</a>. pp. 1–6. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-12-464970-5</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLeggettLambert2022" class="citation journal cs1">Leggett, Sam; Lambert, Tom (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0263675122000072">"Food and Power in Early Medieval England: a Lack of (Isotopic) Enrichment"</a>. Anglo-Saxon England. 49: 155–196. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0263675122000072">10.1017/S0263675122000072</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11820%2F220ece77-d37d-4be5-be19-6edc333cb58e">20.500.11820/220ece77-d37d-4be5-be19-6edc333cb58e</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:257354036">257354036</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Otter_2020-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Otter_2020_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Otter_2020_52-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Otter_2020_52-2">c</a> <cite id="CITEREFOtter2020" class="citation book cs1">Otter, Chris (2020). Diet for a large planet. USA: <a href="University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. pp. 28, 35, 47. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-226-69710-9</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Meat_Atlas-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Meat_Atlas_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Meat_Atlas_53-1">b</a> <a href="Meat_Atlas" title="Meat Atlas">Meat Atlas</a> 2014 – Facts and figures about the animals we eat, pp. 46–48, download as <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.foeeurope.org/sites/default/files/publications/foee_hbf_meatatlas_jan2014.pdf">pdf</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180708020301/https://www.foeeurope.org/meat-atlas">Archived</a> July 8, 2018, at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10.1146/annurev-resource-111820-032340-54">^ <a href="#cite_ref-10.1146/annurev-resource-111820-032340_54-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-10.1146/annurev-resource-111820-032340_54-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFParlascaQaim2022" class="citation journal cs1">Parlasca, Martin C.; Qaim, Matin (October 5, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-resource-111820-032340">"Meat Consumption and Sustainability"</a>. Annual Review of Resource Economics. 14: 17–41. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-resource-111820-032340">10.1146/annurev-resource-111820-032340</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHenchionMcCarthyResconiTroy2014" class="citation journal cs1">Henchion, Maeve; McCarthy, Mary; Resconi, Virginia C.; Troy, Declan (November 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://t-stor.teagasc.ie/bitstream/11019/767/1/Meat%20Consumption_Trends%20and%20Quality%20Matters%20TStor%20%282%29.pdf">"Meat consumption: Trends and quality matters"</a> (PDF). Meat Science. 98 (3): 561–568. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.meatsci.2014.06.007">10.1016/j.meatsci.2014.06.007</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11019%2F767">11019/767</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25060586">25060586</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171102215030/http://t-stor.teagasc.ie/bitstream/11019/767/1/Meat%20Consumption_Trends%20and%20Quality%20Matters%20TStor%20%282%29.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on November 2, 2017. Retrieved September 24, 2019.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:14-56"><a href="#cite_ref-:14_56-0">^</a> <cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en?details=cc8166en">World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023</a>. <a href="Food_and_Agriculture_Organization" title="Food and Agriculture Organization">Food and Agriculture Organization</a>. 2023. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4060%2Fcc8166en">10.4060/cc8166en</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-92-5-138262-2</bdi>. Retrieved December 13, 2023.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ipsos.com/sites/default/files/ct/news/documents/2018-09/an_exploration_into_diets_around_the_world.pdf">"An exploration into diets around the world"</a> (PDF). Ipsos. UK. August 2018. pp. 2, 10, 11. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512072037/https://www.ipsos.com/sites/default/files/ct/news/documents/2018-09/an_exploration_into_diets_around_the_world.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on May 12, 2019.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> Mark Gehlhar and William Coyle, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/media/293589/wrs011c_1_.pdf">"Global Food Consumption and Impacts on Trade Patterns"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120905083755/http://www.ers.usda.gov/media/293589/wrs011c_1_.pdf">Archived</a> September 5, 2012, at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Chapter 1 in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/wrs-international-agriculture-and-trade-outlook/wrs01-1.aspx">Changing Structure of Global Food Consumption and Trade</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130226030129/http://@ers.usda.gov/publications/wrs-international-agriculture-and-trade-outlook/wrs01-1.aspx">Archived</a> February 26, 2013, at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, edited by Anita Regmi, May 2001. USDA Economic Research Service.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/jun/15/france.lifeandhealth">"France's horsemeat lovers fear US ban"</a>. <a href="The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. June 14, 2007. Retrieved December 30, 2022.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <a href="Alan_Davidson_(food_writer)" title="Alan Davidson (food writer)">Davidson, Alan</a> (2006). Tom Jaine, Jane Davidson and Helen Saberi. eds. <a href="The_Oxford_Companion_to_Food" title="The Oxford Companion to Food">The Oxford Companion to Food</a>. Oxford: <a href="Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-19-280681-5</bdi>, pp. 387–388

</li>

<li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Turner, E. 2005. "Results of a recent analysis of horse remains dating to the Magdalenian period at Solutre, France," pp. 70–89. In Mashkour, M (ed.). Equids in Time and Space. Oxford: Oxbow

</li>

<li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/2074073.stm">"Programmes – From Our Own Correspondent – China's taste for the exotic"</a>. BBC. June 29, 2002. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110201234909/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/2074073.stm">Archived</a> from the original on February 1, 2011. Retrieved February 4, 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFPodberscek2009" class="citation journal cs1">Podberscek, A.L. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110719054520/http://www.animalsandsociety.org/assets/265_podberscek.pdf">"Good to Pet and Eat: The Keeping and Consuming of Dogs and Cats in South Korea"</a> (PDF). <a href="Journal_of_Social_Issues" title="Journal of Social Issues">Journal of Social Issues</a>. 65 (3): 615–632. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.596.7570">10.1.1.596.7570</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1540-4560.2009.01616.x">10.1111/j.1540-4560.2009.01616.x</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.animalsandsociety.org/assets/265_podberscek.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on July 19, 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1735647.stm">"Asia-Pacific – Vietnam's dog meat tradition"</a>. <a href="BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a>. December 31, 2001. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110722165946/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1735647.stm">Archived</a> from the original on July 22, 2011. Retrieved February 4, 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arctic.synergiesprairies.ca/arctic/index.php/arctic/article/viewFile/3691/3666">Francis H. Fay (June 1960) "Carnivorous walrus and some arctic zoonoses". Arctic 13, no.2: 111–22</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110706205404/http://arctic.synergiesprairies.ca/arctic/index.php/arctic/article/viewFile/3691/3666">Archived</a> July 6, 2011, at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-auto-66">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_66-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_66-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFSchwabe1979" class="citation book cs1">Schwabe, Calvin W. (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SiBntk9jGmoC">Unmentionable Cuisine</a>. University of Virginia Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8139-1162-5</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHanley1997" class="citation book cs1">Hanley, Susan B. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f7E5a9CIploC&pg=PA66">Everyday Things in Premodern Japan: The Hidden Legacy of Material Culture</a>. <a href="University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. p. 66. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-520-92267-9</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <a href="Alan_Davidson_(food_writer)" title="Alan Davidson (food writer)">Davidson, Alan</a> (2006). Tom Jaine, Jane Davidson and Helen Saberi. eds. <a href="The_Oxford_Companion_to_Food" title="The Oxford Companion to Food">The Oxford Companion to Food</a>. Oxford: <a href="Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-19-280681-5</bdi>, p. 491

</li>

<li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101117142920/http://cronicaviva.com.pe/index.php/regional/costa/3749-carapulcra-de-gato-y-gato-a-la-parilla-sirven-en-fiesta-patronal-">"Carapulcra de gato y gato a la parrilla sirven en fiesta patronal"</a>. Cronica Viva. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cronicaviva.com.pe/index.php/regional/costa/3749-carapulcra-de-gato-y-gato-a-la-parilla-sirven-en-fiesta-patronal-">the original</a> on November 17, 2010. Retrieved December 1, 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/the-americas/2004/07/15/a-guinea-pig-for-all-tastes-and-seasons">"A Guinea Pig for All Times and Seasons"</a>. <a href="The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a>. July 15, 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120222030533/http://www.economist.com/node/2926169">Archived</a> from the original on February 22, 2012. Retrieved December 1, 2011.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.profauna.net/sites/default/files/downloads/publication-2005-whaling-in-lamalera.pdf">"Whaling in Lamaera-Flores"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130620014201/http://www.profauna.net/sites/default/files/downloads/publication-2005-whaling-in-lamalera.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on June 20, 2013. Retrieved April 10, 2013.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCastle2013" class="citation news cs1">Castle, Stephen (April 16, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/17/business/global/european-study-affirms-role-of-fraud-in-horsemeat-scandal.html">"Europe Says Tests Show Horse Meat Scandal Is 'Food Fraud'"</a>. <a href="The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. Retrieved December 30, 2022.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://animalscience.unl.edu/meat-cooking-methods">"Meat Cooking Methods"</a>. University of Nebraska-Lincoln Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources. Retrieved February 17, 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFJanes2001" class="citation news cs1">Janes, Hilly (November 10, 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/food-and-drink/features/smoked-food-on-a-plate-9198295.html">"Smoked food... on a plate"</a>. The Independent. London. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220706132708/http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/food-and-drink/features/smoked-food-on-a-plate-9198295.html">Archived</a> from the original on July 6, 2022. Retrieved August 28, 2023.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFNummer2002" class="citation web cs1">Nummer, Brian A. (May 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111015194629/http://www.uga.edu/nchfp/publications/nchfp/factsheets/food_pres_hist.html">"Historical Origins of Food Preservation"</a>. National Center for Home Food Preservation. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nchfp.uga.edu/publications/nchfp/factsheets/food_pres_hist.html">the original</a> on October 15, 2011. Retrieved January 2, 2023.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tasteatlas.com/steak-tartare">"Steak tartare: Traditional Appetizer From France"</a>. TasteAtlas. Retrieved November 3, 2023.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://guide.michelin.com/en/article/features/%E6%B3%95%E5%BC%8F%E8%82%9D%E9%86%AC%E8%88%87%E8%82%89%E9%86%AC">"Demystifying French Soft Charcuterie"</a>. MICHELIN Guide. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220306223240/https://guide.michelin.com/en/article/features/%E6%B3%95%E5%BC%8F%E8%82%9D%E9%86%AC%E8%88%87%E8%82%89%E9%86%AC">Archived</a> from the original on March 6, 2022. Retrieved July 2, 2021.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-who-78">^ <a href="#cite_ref-who_78-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-who_78-1">b</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/features/qa/cancer-red-meat/en/">"Q&A on the carcinogenicity of the consumption of red meat and processed meat"</a>. World Health Organization. October 1, 2015. Retrieved August 7, 2019.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Staph-79">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Staph_79-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Staph_79-1">b</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/04/110415083153.htm">"US Meat and Poultry Is Widely Contaminated With Drug-Resistant Staph Bacteria"</a>. sciencedaily.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170707081303/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/04/110415083153.htm">Archived</a> from the original on July 7, 2017. Retrieved March 9, 2018.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://health.gov/our-work/nutrition-physical-activity/dietary-guidelines/previous-dietary-guidelines/2015">"2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines"</a>. health.gov. Retrieved December 30, 2022.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-PAHs-81">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PAHs_81-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PAHs_81-1">b</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110519225348/http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sc/scf/out154_en.pdf">"PAH-Occurrence in Foods, Dietary Exposure and Health Effects"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sc/scf/out154_en.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on May 19, 2011. Retrieved May 1, 2010.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Püssa-82"><a href="#cite_ref-Püssa_82-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFPüssa2013" class="citation journal cs1">Püssa, Tõnu (December 1, 2013). "Toxicological issues associated with production and processing of meat". Meat Science. 95 (4): 844–853. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.meatsci.2013.04.032">10.1016/j.meatsci.2013.04.032</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23660174">23660174</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230323222509/https://www3.paho.org/hq/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=11394:iarc-evaluates-consumption-of-red-meat-and-processed-meat&Itemid=0&lang=en">"IARC evaluates consumption of red meat and processed meat"</a>. paho.org. Retrieved March 22, 2023.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-WHO-20151026-84"><a href="#cite_ref-WHO-20151026_84-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFStaff" class="citation news cs1">Staff. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2015/pdfs/pr240_E.pdf">"World Health Organization – IARC Monographs evaluate consumption of red meat and processed meat"</a> (PDF). <a href="International_Agency_for_Research_on_Cancer" title="International Agency for Research on Cancer">International Agency for Research on Cancer</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151026144543/http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2015/pdfs/pr240_E.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on October 26, 2015. Retrieved October 26, 2015.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/eat-well/food-guidelines-and-food-labels/red-meat-and-the-risk-of-bowel-cancer/">"Red meat and the risk of bowel cancer"</a>. nhs.uk. Retrieved March 22, 2023.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/diet-and-cancer/does-eating-processed-and-red-meat-cause-cancer">"Does eating processed and red meat cause cancer?"</a>. cancerresearchuk.org. Retrieved March 22, 2023.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://progressreport.cancer.gov/prevention/red_meat">"Red Meat and Processed Meat Consumption"</a>. progressreport.cancer.gov. Retrieved March 22, 2023.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRockThomsonGanslerGapstur2020" class="citation journal cs1">Rock, Cheryl L.; Thomson, Cynthia; Gansler, Ted; Gapstur, Susan M.; McCullough, Marjorie L.; Patel, Alpa V.; et al. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3322%2Fcaac.21591">"American Cancer Society guideline for diet and physical activity for cancer prevention"</a>. CA. 70 (4): 245–271. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3322%2Fcaac.21591">10.3322/caac.21591</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32515498">32515498</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219550658">219550658</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/reduce-your-risk/eat-well/limit-red-and-processed-meat">"Limit red and processed meat"</a>. cancer.ca. Retrieved April 10, 2023.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHuangCaoChenChen2021" class="citation journal cs1">Huang Y, Cao D, Chen Z, Chen B, Li J, Guo J, Dong Q, Liu L, Wei Q (September 2021). "Red and processed meat consumption and cancer outcomes: Umbrella review". Food Chem (Review). 356 129697. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.foodchem.2021.129697">10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.129697</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33838606">33838606</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/heterocyclic-amines">"National Cancer Institute – Heterocyclic Amines in Cooked Meats"</a>. Cancer.gov. September 15, 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101221034421/http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/heterocyclic-amines">Archived</a> from the original on December 21, 2010. Retrieved May 1, 2010.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/heterocyclic-amines">"Heterocyclic Amines in Cooked Meats – National Cancer Institute"</a>. Cancer.gov. September 15, 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101221034421/http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/heterocyclic-amines">Archived</a> from the original on December 21, 2010. Retrieved May 1, 2010.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWasley2018" class="citation news cs1">Wasley, Andrew (February 21, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/animals-farmed/2018/feb/21/dirty-meat-shocking-hygiene-failings-discovered-in-us-pig-and-chicken-plants">"'Dirty meat': Shocking hygiene failings discovered in US pig and chicken plants"</a>. <a href="The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180223222127/https://www.theguardian.com/animals-farmed/2018/feb/21/dirty-meat-shocking-hygiene-failings-discovered-in-us-pig-and-chicken-plants">Archived</a> from the original on February 23, 2018. Retrieved February 24, 2018.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCorpetYinZhangRémésy1995" class="citation journal cs1">Corpet, Denis; Yin, Y.; Zhang, X.; Rémésy, C.; Stamp, D.; Medline, A.; et al. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2518970">"Colonic protein fermentation and promotion of colon carcinogenesis by thermolyzed casein"</a>. Nutr Cancer. 23 (3): 271–281. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01635589509514381">10.1080/01635589509514381</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2518970">2518970</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7603887">7603887</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Giosuè_Calabrese_Riccardi_Vaccaro_2022-95"><a href="#cite_ref-Giosuè_Calabrese_Riccardi_Vaccaro_2022_95-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGiosuèCalabreseRiccardiVaccaro2022" class="citation journal cs1">Giosuè, Annalisa; Calabrese, Ilaria; Riccardi, Gabriele; Vaccaro, Olga; Vitale, Marilena (2022). "Consumption of different animal-based foods and risk of type 2 diabetes: An umbrella review of meta-analyses of prospective studies". Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice. 191 110071. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.diabres.2022.110071">10.1016/j.diabres.2022.110071</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36067917">36067917</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.diabetes.org.uk/guide-to-diabetes/enjoy-food/eating-with-diabetes/what-is-a-healthy-balanced-diet/processed-and-red-meat">"Red alert: processed and red meat"</a>. diabetes.org.uk. Retrieved March 22, 2023.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.diabetes.org.uk/guide-to-diabetes/enjoy-food/eating-with-diabetes/what-is-a-healthy-balanced-diet/processed-and-red-meat">"What is a Healthy, Balanced Diet for Diabetes?"</a>. diabetes.org.uk. Retrieved March 22, 2023.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109341-98"><a href="#cite_ref-10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109341_98-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGonzálezMarquèsNadalDomingo2020" class="citation journal cs1">González, Neus; Marquès, Montse; Nadal, Martí; Domingo, José L. (November 1, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7256495">"Meat consumption: Which are the current global risks? A review of recent (2010–2020) evidences"</a>. Food Research International. 137 109341. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.foodres.2020.109341">10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109341</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7256495">7256495</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33233049">33233049</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGreger2021" class="citation journal cs1">Greger, Michael (September 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8504329">"Primary Pandemic Prevention"</a>. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine. 15 (5): 498–505. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F15598276211008134">10.1177/15598276211008134</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8504329">8504329</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34646097">34646097</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSutton2018" class="citation journal cs1">Sutton, Troy C. (September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6164301">"The Pandemic Threat of Emerging H5 and H7 Avian Influenza Viruses"</a>. Viruses. 10 (9): 461. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fv10090461">10.3390/v10090461</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6164301">6164301</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30154345">30154345</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMongerGilbertSaucierVincent2021" class="citation journal cs1">Monger, Xavier C.; Gilbert, Alex-An; Saucier, Linda; Vincent, Antony T. (October 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8532907">"Antibiotic Resistance: From Pig to Meat"</a>. Antibiotics. 10 (10): 1209. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fantibiotics10101209">10.3390/antibiotics10101209</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8532907">8532907</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34680790">34680790</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCliffordDesaiPrazeres_da_CostaMeyer2018" class="citation journal cs1">Clifford, Katie; Desai, Darash; Prazeres da Costa, Clarissa; Meyer, Hannelore; Klohe, Katharina; Winkler, Andrea; Rahman, Tanvir; Islam, Taohidul; Zaman, Muhammad H (September 1, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6154060">"Antimicrobial resistance in livestock and poor quality veterinary medicines"</a>. <a href="Bulletin_of_the_World_Health_Organization" title="Bulletin of the World Health Organization">Bulletin of the World Health Organization</a>. 96 (9): 662–664. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2471%2FBLT.18.209585">10.2471/BLT.18.209585</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6154060">6154060</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30262949">30262949</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:8-103"><a href="#cite_ref-:8_103-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMurrayIkutaShararaSwetschinski2022" class="citation journal cs1">Murray, Christopher JL; Ikuta, Kevin Shunji; Sharara, Fablina; Swetschinski, Lucien; Aguilar, Gisela Robles; Gray, Authia; et al. (January 19, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8841637">"Global burden of bacterial antimicrobial resistance in 2019: a systematic analysis"</a>. <a href="The_Lancet" title="The Lancet">The Lancet</a>. 399 (10325): 629–655 glish. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2821%2902724-0">10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02724-0</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8841637">8841637</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35065702">35065702</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:246077406">246077406</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWalkerRhubart-BergMcKenzieKelling2005" class="citation journal cs1">Walker, Polly; Rhubart-Berg, Pamela; McKenzie, Shawn; Kelling, Kristin; Lawrence, Robert S. (June 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1079%2FPHN2005727">"Public health implications of meat production and consumption"</a>. Public Health Nutrition. 8 (4): 348–356. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1079%2FPHN2005727">10.1079/PHN2005727</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15975179">15975179</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:59196">59196</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHafezAttia2020" class="citation journal cs1">Hafez, Hafez M.; Attia, Youssef A. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7479178">"Challenges to the Poultry Industry: Current Perspectives and Strategic Future After the COVID-19 Outbreak"</a>. <a href="Frontiers_in_Veterinary_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Frontiers in Veterinary Science">Frontiers in Veterinary Science</a>. 7: 516. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffvets.2020.00516">10.3389/fvets.2020.00516</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7479178">7479178</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33005639">33005639</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMehdiLétourneau-MontminyGaucherChorfi2018" class="citation journal cs1">Mehdi, Youcef; Létourneau-Montminy, Marie-Pierre; Gaucher, Marie-Lou; Chorfi, Younes; Suresh, Gayatri; Rouissi, Tarek; et al. (June 1, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6103476">"Use of antibiotics in broiler production: Global impacts and alternatives"</a>. Animal Nutrition. 4 (2): 170–178. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.aninu.2018.03.002">10.1016/j.aninu.2018.03.002</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6103476">6103476</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30140756">30140756</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060304100230/http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/foodreview/jan1996/frjan96f.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/foodreview/jan1996/frjan96f.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on March 4, 2006. Retrieved August 17, 2015.</cite><code class="cs1-code">{{cite web}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10.1080/10408398.2021.1949575-108">^ <a href="#cite_ref-10.1080/10408398.2021.1949575_108-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-10.1080/10408398.2021.1949575_108-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFPapierKnuppelSyamJebb2021" class="citation journal cs1">Papier, Keren; Knuppel, Anika; Syam, Nandana; Jebb, Susan A.; Key, Tim J. (July 20, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:5d4dd1d6-4f33-4edc-9ae0-58c332d10c4f">"Meat consumption and risk of ischemic heart disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis"</a>. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 63 (3): 426–437. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10408398.2021.1949575">10.1080/10408398.2021.1949575</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34284672">34284672</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:236158918">236158918</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFZhang2022" class="citation journal cs1">Zhang, X.; et al. (2022). "Red/processed meat consumption and non-cancer-related outcomes in humans: umbrella review". British Journal of Nutrition. 22 (3): 484–494. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0007114522003415">10.1017/S0007114522003415</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36545687">36545687</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:255021441">255021441</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFPetter2020" class="citation news cs1">Petter, Olivia (September 24, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/veganism-environmental-impact-planet-reduced-plant-based-diet-humans-study-a8378631.html">"Veganism is 'single biggest way' to reduce our environmental impact, study finds"</a>. The Independent. Retrieved November 23, 2023.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFDalton" class="citation news cs1">Dalton, Jane. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/news/climate-meat-dairy-diet-food-co2-b1951760.html">"World leaders 'reckless for ignoring how meat and dairy accelerate climate crisis'"</a>. <a href="The_Independent" title="The Independent">The Independent</a>. Retrieved November 23, 2023.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRitchie2021" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Hannah_Ritchie" title="Hannah Ritchie">Ritchie, Hannah</a> (February 9, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ourworldindata.org/drivers-of-deforestation">"Drivers of Deforestation"</a>. <a href="Our_World_in_Data" title="Our World in Data">Our World in Data</a>. Retrieved March 20, 2021.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMilman2017" class="citation news cs1">Milman, Oliver (August 1, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/aug/01/meat-industry-dead-zone-gulf-of-mexico-environment-pollution">"Meat industry blamed for largest-ever 'dead zone' in Gulf of Mexico"</a>. The Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200119112425/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/aug/01/meat-industry-dead-zone-gulf-of-mexico-environment-pollution">Archived</a> from the original on January 19, 2020. Retrieved August 2, 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMorell2015" class="citation web cs1">Morell, Virginia (August 11, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/content/article/meat-eaters-may-speed-worldwide-species-extinction-study-warns">"Meat-eaters may speed worldwide species extinction, study warns"</a>. <a href="Science_(magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Science (magazine)">Science</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161220105327/http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2015/08/meat-eaters-may-speed-worldwide-species-extinction-study-warns">Archived</a> from the original on December 20, 2016. Retrieved January 10, 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHance2015" class="citation web cs1">Hance, Jeremy (October 20, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/radical-conservation/2015/oct/20/the-four-horsemen-of-the-sixth-mass-extinction">"How humans are driving the sixth mass extinction"</a>. <a href="The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161204223902/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/radical-conservation/2015/oct/20/the-four-horsemen-of-the-sixth-mass-extinction">Archived</a> from the original on December 4, 2016. Retrieved January 10, 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSteinfeldGerberWassenaarCastel2006" class="citation book cs1">Steinfeld, Henning; Gerber, Pierre; Wassenaar, Tom; Castel, Vincent; Rosales, Mauricio; de Haan, Cees (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.europarl.europa.eu/climatechange/doc/FAO%20report%20executive%20summary.pdf">Livestock's Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options</a> (PDF). <a href="Food_and_Agriculture_Organization" title="Food and Agriculture Organization">Food and Agriculture Organization</a>. p. xxiii. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-92-5-105571-7</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191210012108/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/climatechange/doc/FAO%20report%20executive%20summary.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on December 10, 2019. Retrieved May 14, 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Machovina_2015_419–431-117">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Machovina_2015_419–431_117-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Machovina_2015_419–431_117-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFMachovinaFeeleyRipple2015" class="citation journal cs1">Machovina, B.; Feeley, K.J.; Ripple, W.J. (2015). "Biodiversity conservation: The key is reducing meat consumption". Science of the Total Environment. 536: 419–31. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015ScTEn.536..419M">2015ScTEn.536..419M</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.scitotenv.2015.07.022">10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.07.022</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26231772">26231772</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10.1038/s43016-021-00358-x-118">^ <a href="#cite_ref-10.1038/s43016-021-00358-x_118-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-10.1038/s43016-021-00358-x_118-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFXuSharmaShuLin2021" class="citation journal cs1">Xu, Xiaoming; Sharma, Prateek; Shu, Shijie; Lin, Tzu-Shun; Ciais, Philippe; Tubiello, Francesco N.; et al. (September 2021). "Global greenhouse gas emissions from animal-based foods are twice those of plant-based foods". <a href="Nature_Food" title="Nature Food">Nature Food</a>. 2 (9): 724–732. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs43016-021-00358-x">10.1038/s43016-021-00358-x</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2164%2F18207">2164/18207</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37117472">37117472</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:240562878">240562878</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wwf.panda.org/discover/knowledge_hub/where_we_work/amazon/amazon_threats/unsustainable_cattle_ranching/?">"Unsustainable Cattle Ranching"</a>. wwf.org. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved November 23, 2023.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> Steinfeld, H. et al. 2006, Livestock's Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options. Livestock, Environment and Development, FAO.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHolechek1982" class="citation journal cs1">Holechek, J. L.; et al. (1982). "Manipulation of grazing to improve or maintain wildlife habitat". Wildlife Society Bulletin. 10: 204–10.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFStrassman1987" class="citation journal cs1">Strassman, B.I. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/48162/1/267_2005_Article_BF01867177.pdf">"Effects of cattle grazing and haying on wildlife conservation at National Wildlife Refuges in the United States"</a> (PDF). Environmental Management. 11 (1): 35–44. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1987EnMan..11...35S">1987EnMan..11...35S</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf01867177">10.1007/bf01867177</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027.42%2F48162">2027.42/48162</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55282106">55282106</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> Launchbaugh, K. (ed.) 2006. Targeted Grazing: a natural approach to vegetation management and landscape enhancement. American Sheep Industry. 199 pp.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRajãoSoares-FilhoNunesBörner2020" class="citation journal cs1">Rajão, Raoni; Soares-Filho, Britaldo; Nunes, Felipe; Börner, Jan; Machado, Lilian; Assis, Débora; et al. (July 17, 2020). "The rotten apples of Brazil's agribusiness". <a href="Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a>. 369 (6501): 246–248. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020Sci...369..246R">2020Sci...369..246R</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aba6646">10.1126/science.aba6646</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32675358">32675358</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220548355">220548355</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-53438680">"Amazon soya and beef exports 'linked to deforestation'"</a>. BBC News. July 17, 2020.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFzu_ErmgassenGodarLathuillièreLöfgren2020" class="citation journal cs1">zu Ermgassen, Erasmus K. H. J.; Godar, Javier; Lathuillière, Michael J.; Löfgren, Pernilla; Gardner, Toby; Vasconcelos, André; Meyfroidt, Patrick (December 15, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7749302">"The origin, supply chain, and deforestation risk of Brazil's beef exports"</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 117 (50): 31770–31779. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020PNAS..11731770Z">2020PNAS..11731770Z</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.2003270117">10.1073/pnas.2003270117</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7749302">7749302</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33262283">33262283</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMcCoyLedur" class="citation news cs1">McCoy, Terrence; Ledur, Júlia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/interactive/2022/amazon-beef-deforestation-brazil/">"How Americans' love of beef is helping destroy the Amazon rainforest"</a>. The Washington Post. Retrieved May 27, 2022.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSutter2016" class="citation web cs1">Sutter, John D. (December 12, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnn.com/2016/12/12/world/sutter-vanishing-help/">"How to stop the sixth mass extinction"</a>. <a href="CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170112083004/http://www.cnn.com/2016/12/12/world/sutter-vanishing-help/">Archived</a> from the original on January 12, 2017. Retrieved January 10, 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFDave_Merrill_and_Lauren_Leatherby" class="citation news cs1">Dave Merrill and Lauren Leatherby. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2018-us-land-use/">"Here's How America Uses Its Land"</a>. Bloomberg.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200225232852/https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2018-us-land-use/">Archived</a> from the original on February 25, 2020.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFNibert2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="David_Nibert" title="David Nibert">Nibert, David</a> (2011). "Origins and Consequences of the Animal Industrial Complex". In <a href="Steven_Best" title="Steven Best">Steven Best</a>; Richard Kahn; Anthony J. Nocella II; <a href="Peter_McLaren" title="Peter McLaren">Peter McLaren</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rowman.com/ISBN/9780739136973/The-Global-Industrial-Complex-Systems-of-Domination">The Global Industrial Complex: Systems of Domination</a>. <a href="Rowman_%26_Littlefield" class="mw-redirect" title="Rowman & Littlefield">Rowman & Littlefield</a>. p. 206. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0739136980</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLawrenceCoeWalkerVerchot2022" class="citation journal cs1">Lawrence, Deborah; Coe, Michael; Walker, Wayne; Verchot, Louis; Vandecar, Karen (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Fffgc.2022.756115">"The Unseen Effects of Deforestation: Biophysical Effects on Climate"</a>. <a href="Frontiers_in_Forests_and_Global_Change" class="mw-redirect" title="Frontiers in Forests and Global Change">Frontiers in Forests and Global Change</a>. 5. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022FrFGC...5.6115L">2022FrFGC...5.6115L</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Fffgc.2022.756115">10.3389/ffgc.2022.756115</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBorrelliRobinsonPanagosLugato2020" class="citation journal cs1">Borrelli, Pasquale; Robinson, David A.; Panagos, Panos; Lugato, Emanuele; Yang, Jae E.; Alewell, Christine; et al. (August 20, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7486701">"Land use and climate change impacts on global soil erosion by water (2015–2070)"</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 117 (36): 21994–22001. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020PNAS..11721994B">2020PNAS..11721994B</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.2001403117">10.1073/pnas.2001403117</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7486701">7486701</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32839306">32839306</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:221305830">221305830</a>.</cite>

<ul><li>News article: <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://phys.org/news/2020-08-climate-soil-erosion.html">"Climate change and land use are accelerating soil erosion by water"</a>. phys.org. Retrieved September 7, 2020.</cite></li></ul>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWeston2021" class="citation news cs1">Weston, Phoebe (January 13, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/jan/13/top-scientists-warn-of-ghastly-future-of-mass-extinction-and-climate-disruption-aoe">"Top scientists warn of 'ghastly future of mass extinction' and climate disruption"</a>. <a href="The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. Retrieved January 14, 2021.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBradshawEhrlichBeattieCeballos2021" class="citation journal cs1">Bradshaw, Corey J. A.; Ehrlich, Paul R.; Beattie, Andrew; Ceballos, Gerardo; Crist, Eileen; Diamond, Joan; et al. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffcosc.2020.615419">"Underestimating the Challenges of Avoiding a Ghastly Future"</a>. Frontiers in Conservation Science. 1. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffcosc.2020.615419">10.3389/fcosc.2020.615419</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Milman_2021-135"><a href="#cite_ref-Milman_2021_135-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMilman2021" class="citation news cs1">Milman, Oliver (September 13, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/13/meat-greenhouses-gases-food-production-study">"Meat accounts for nearly 60% of all greenhouse gases from food production, study finds"</a>. <a href="The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. <q>Source: Xu, et al., 2021, 'Global greenhouse gas emissions from animal-based foods are twice those of plant-based foods'</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBehrensJongBoskerRodrigues2017" class="citation journal cs1">Behrens, Paul; Jong, Jessica C. Kiefte-de; Bosker, Thijs; Rodrigues, João F.D.; Koning, Arjan de; Tukker, Arnold (December 19, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5754780">"Evaluating the environmental impacts of dietary recommendations"</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 114 (51): 13412–17. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017PNAS..11413412B">2017PNAS..11413412B</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1711889114">10.1073/pnas.1711889114</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5754780">5754780</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29203655">29203655</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-TG-20100602-137"><a href="#cite_ref-TG-20100602_137-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCarus2010" class="citation news cs1">Carus, Felicity (June 2, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2010/jun/02/un-report-meat-free-diet">"UN urges global move to meat and dairy-free diet"</a>. <a href="The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180303145344/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2010/jun/02/un-report-meat-free-diet">Archived</a> from the original on March 3, 2018. Retrieved June 11, 2015.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGibbens2019" class="citation news cs1">Gibbens, Sarah (January 16, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190203030847/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2019/01/commission-report-great-food-transformation-plant-diet-climate-change/">"Eating meat has 'dire' consequences for the planet, says report"</a>. <a href="National_Geographic_(magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Geographic (magazine)">National Geographic</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2019/01/commission-report-great-food-transformation-plant-diet-climate-change/">the original</a> on February 3, 2019. Retrieved February 14, 2019.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWillettRockströmTilmanGodfray2018" class="citation journal cs1">Willett, Walter; Rockström, Johan; Tilman, David; Godfray, H. Charles J.; Fanzo, Jess; Loken, Brent; Rayner, Mike; Scarborough, Peter; Zurayk, Rami (October 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://publications.pik-potsdam.de/pubman/item/item_22704">"Options for keeping the food system within environmental limits"</a>. Nature. 562 (7728): 519–525. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018Natur.562..519S">2018Natur.562..519S</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-018-0594-0">10.1038/s41586-018-0594-0</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30305731">30305731</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:52954514">52954514</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10.1038/d41586-019-02409-7-140">^ <a href="#cite_ref-10.1038/d41586-019-02409-7_140-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-10.1038/d41586-019-02409-7_140-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFSchiermeier2019" class="citation journal cs1">Schiermeier, Quirin (August 8, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-02409-7">"Eat less meat: UN climate change report calls for change to human diet"</a>. <a href="Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a>. 572 (7769): 291–292. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019Natur.572..291S">2019Natur.572..291S</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fd41586-019-02409-7">10.1038/d41586-019-02409-7</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31409926">31409926</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:199543066">199543066</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190809164640/https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-02409-7">Archived</a> from the original on August 9, 2019. Retrieved August 10, 2019.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMorell2015" class="citation web cs1">Morell, Virginia (August 11, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/content/article/meat-eaters-may-speed-worldwide-species-extinction-study-warns">"Meat-eaters may speed worldwide species extinction, study warns"</a>. <a href="Science_(magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Science (magazine)">Science</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161220105327/http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2015/08/meat-eaters-may-speed-worldwide-species-extinction-study-warns">Archived</a> from the original on December 20, 2016. Retrieved December 14, 2016.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSmithers2017" class="citation news cs1">Smithers, Rebecca (October 5, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/oct/05/vast-animal-feed-crops-meat-needs-destroying-planet">"Vast animal-feed crops to satisfy our meat needs are destroying planet"</a>. The Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180303143952/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/oct/05/vast-animal-feed-crops-meat-needs-destroying-planet">Archived</a> from the original on March 3, 2018. Retrieved October 5, 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCarrington2018" class="citation news cs1">Carrington, Damian (May 21, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/may/21/human-race-just-001-of-all-life-but-has-destroyed-over-80-of-wild-mammals-study">"Humans just 0.01% of all life but have destroyed 83% of wild mammals – study"</a>. The Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180911035201/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/may/21/human-race-just-001-of-all-life-but-has-destroyed-over-80-of-wild-mammals-study">Archived</a> from the original on September 11, 2018. Retrieved June 29, 2018.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBar-OnPhillipsMilo2018" class="citation journal cs1">Bar-On, Yinon M.; Phillips, Rob; Milo, Ron (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6016768">"The biomass distribution on Earth"</a>. <a href="Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_United_States_of_America" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>. 115 (25): 6506–11. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018PNAS..115.6506B">2018PNAS..115.6506B</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1711842115">10.1073/pnas.1711842115</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6016768">6016768</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29784790">29784790</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRipple2017" class="citation journal cs1">Ripple, W.J.; et al. (November 13, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbiosci%2Fbix125">"World Scientists' Warning to Humanity: A Second Notice"</a>. <a href="BioScience" title="BioScience">BioScience</a>. 67 (12): 1026–1028. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbiosci%2Fbix125">10.1093/biosci/bix125</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11336%2F71342">11336/71342</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWatts2019" class="citation news cs1">Watts, Jonathan (May 6, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/may/06/human-society-under-urgent-threat-loss-earth-natural-life-un-report">"Human society under urgent threat from loss of Earth's natural life"</a>. <a href="The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190518041123/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/may/06/human-society-under-urgent-threat-loss-earth-natural-life-un-report">Archived</a> from the original on May 18, 2019. Retrieved May 18, 2019. <q>Over the past week, representatives from the world's governments have fine-tuned the summary for policymakers, which includes remedial scenarios, such as "transformative change" across all areas of government, revised trade rules, massive investments in forests and other green infrastructure, and changes in individual behaviour such as lower consumption of meat and material goods.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Carrington-147"><a href="#cite_ref-Carrington_147-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCarrington2021" class="citation news cs1">Carrington, Damian (February 3, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/feb/03/plant-based-diets-crucial-to-saving-global-wildlife-says-report">"Plant-based diets crucial to saving global wildlife, says report"</a>. <a href="The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. Retrieved February 5, 2021.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGodfrayAveyard2018" class="citation journal cs1">Godfray, H. Charles J.; Aveyard, Paul; et al. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:cc174e1d-0e3e-43ce-9d3b-ad7e204d0845">"Meat consumption, health, and the environment"</a>. Science. 361 (6399). <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018Sci...361M5324G">2018Sci...361M5324G</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aam5324">10.1126/science.aam5324</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30026199">30026199</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:49895246">49895246</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAnderson1978" class="citation journal cs1">Anderson, D.C. (1978). "Use of cereal residues in beef cattle production systems". J. Anim. Sci. 46 (3): 849–61. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2527%2Fjas1978.463849x">10.2527/jas1978.463849x</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFElferinkNonhebelMoll2008" class="citation journal cs1">Elferink, E.V.; Nonhebel, S.; Moll, H.C. (2008). "Feeding livestock food residue and the consequences for the environmental impact of meat". J. Clean. Prod. 16 (12): 1227–33. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008JCPro..16.1227E">2008JCPro..16.1227E</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jclepro.2007.06.008">10.1016/j.jclepro.2007.06.008</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> Shapouri, H. et al. 2002. The energy balance of corn ethanol: an update. USDA Agricultural Economic Report 814.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10.1038/s43016-021-00431-5-152">^ <a href="#cite_ref-10.1038/s43016-021-00431-5_152-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-10.1038/s43016-021-00431-5_152-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFSunSchererTukkerSpawn-Lee2022" class="citation journal cs1">Sun, Zhongxiao; Scherer, Laura; Tukker, Arnold; Spawn-Lee, Seth A.; Bruckner, Martin; Gibbs, Holly K.; Behrens, Paul (January 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/357723207">"Dietary change in high-income nations alone can lead to substantial double climate dividend"</a>. Nature Food. 3 (1): 29–37. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs43016-021-00431-5">10.1038/s43016-021-00431-5</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37118487">37118487</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:245867412">245867412</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCraigMangelsFresánMarsh2021" class="citation journal cs1">Craig, Winston J.; Mangels, Ann Reed; Fresán, Ujué; Marsh, Kate; Miles, Fayth L.; Saunders, Angela V.; et al. (November 19, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8623061">"The Safe and Effective Use of Plant-Based Diets with Guidelines for Health Professionals"</a>. Nutrients. 13 (11): 4144. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fnu13114144">10.3390/nu13114144</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8623061">8623061</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34836399">34836399</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHumpenöderBodirskyWeindlLotze-Campen2022" class="citation journal cs1">Humpenöder, Florian; Bodirsky, Benjamin Leon; Weindl, Isabelle; Lotze-Campen, Hermann; Linder, Tomas; Popp, Alexander (May 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://publications.pik-potsdam.de/pubman/item/item_27105_5/component/file_27634/27105oa.pdf">"Projected environmental benefits of replacing beef with microbial protein"</a> (PDF). <a href="Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a>. 605 (7908): 90–96. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022Natur.605...90H">2022Natur.605...90H</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-022-04629-w">10.1038/s41586-022-04629-w</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35508780">35508780</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:248526001">248526001</a>.</cite> News article: <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencenews.org/article/meat-microbial-protein-climate-change-deforestation-fungi-algae">"Replacing some meat with microbial protein could help fight climate change"</a>. Science News. May 5, 2022. Retrieved May 27, 2022.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBhuvaneswariSivakumar2021" class="citation book cs1">Bhuvaneswari, Meganathan; Sivakumar, Nallusamy (2021). "Fungi: A Potential Future Meat Substitute". Fungi in Sustainable Food Production. Fungal Biology. Springer International Publishing. pp. 181–195. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-030-64406-2_11">10.1007/978-3-030-64406-2_11</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-030-64405-5</bdi>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:234315964">234315964</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLeeYongKimChoi2020" class="citation journal cs1">Lee, Hyun Jung; Yong, Hae In; Kim, Minsu; Choi, Yun-Sang; Jo, Cheorun (October 1, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7463075">"Status of meat alternatives and their potential role in the future meat market – A review"</a>. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences. 33 (10): 1533–1543. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5713%2Fajas.20.0419">10.5713/ajas.20.0419</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7463075">7463075</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32819080">32819080</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSirimuangmoonLeeGuinardMyrdal_Miller2016" class="citation journal cs1">Sirimuangmoon, Chirat; Lee, Soh-Min; Guinard, Jean-Xavier; Myrdal Miller, Amy (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://so01.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/APST/article/view/62602">"A Study of Using Mushrooms as a Plant-based Alternative for a Popular Meat-based Dish"</a>. Asia-Pacific Journal of Science and Technology. 21 (16). <a href="Khon_Kaen_University" title="Khon Kaen University">Khon Kaen University</a>: 156–167. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.14456%2FKKURJ.2016.15">10.14456/KKURJ.2016.15</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:113606865">113606865</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10.1016/j.appet.2020.105058-158"><a href="#cite_ref-10.1016/j.appet.2020.105058_158-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFOnwezenBouwmanReindersDagevos2021" class="citation journal cs1">Onwezen, M. C.; Bouwman, E. P.; Reinders, M. J.; Dagevos, H. (April 1, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.appet.2020.105058">"A systematic review on consumer acceptance of alternative proteins: Pulses, algae, insects, plant-based meat alternatives, and cultured meat"</a>. Appetite. 159 105058. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.appet.2020.105058">10.1016/j.appet.2020.105058</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33276014">33276014</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:227242500">227242500</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFDirzoCeballosEhrlich2022" class="citation journal cs1">Dirzo, Rodolfo; Ceballos, Gerardo; Ehrlich, Paul R. (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9237743">"Circling the drain: the extinction crisis and the future of humanity"</a>. <a href="Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society_B" title="Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B</a>. 377 (1857). <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2021.0378">10.1098/rstb.2021.0378</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9237743">9237743</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35757873">35757873</a>. <q>Although among many Indigenous populations, meat consumption represents a cultural tradition and a source of protein, it is the massive planetary monopoly of industrial meat production that needs to be curbed</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLeroyPraet2015" class="citation journal cs1">Leroy, Frédéric; Praet, Istvan (July 2015). "Meat traditions. The co-evolution of humans and meat". Appetite. 90: 200–211. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.appet.2015.03.014">10.1016/j.appet.2015.03.014</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25794684">25794684</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23769488">23769488</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Sandler_2014-161"><a href="#cite_ref-Sandler_2014_161-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSandler2014" class="citation book cs1">Sandler, Ronald L. (2014). "3. Should we eat animals?". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0XXZBAAAQBAJ">Food Ethics: The Basics</a>. London: Taylor & Francis. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-135-04547-0</bdi>. Retrieved February 11, 2018.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Buscemi-162">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Buscemi_162-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buscemi_162-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buscemi_162-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buscemi_162-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buscemi_162-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buscemi_162-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buscemi_162-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buscemi_162-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buscemi_162-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buscemi_162-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buscemi_162-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buscemi_162-11">l</a> <cite id="CITEREFBuscemi2018" class="citation book cs1">Buscemi, Francesco (2018). From Body Fuel to Universal Poison: Cultural History of Meat: 1900–The Present. <a href="Springer_Nature" title="Springer Nature">Springer</a> International Publishing AG. pp. 10–16. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-319-72085-2</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Aristotle-163">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Aristotle_163-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aristotle_163-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFAristotleJowett" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle; Jowett, B. The Politics. Ancient Greece. p. I. 8. 1256b.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Tähtinen_1976-164"><a href="#cite_ref-Tähtinen_1976_164-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFTähtinen1976" class="citation book cs1">Tähtinen, Unto (1976). Ahimsa: Non-Violence in Indian Tradition. London: Rider. pp. 107–111.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Walters_Portmess_2001-165"><a href="#cite_ref-Walters_Portmess_2001_165-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWaltersPortmess2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Kerry_S._Walters" title="Kerry S. Walters">Walters, Kerry S.</a>; Portmess, Lisa (2001). Religious Vegetarianism From Hesiod to the Dalai Lama. Albany: State University of New York Press. pp. 37–91.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Takhar2005-166"><a href="#cite_ref-Takhar2005_166-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFTakhar2005" class="citation book cs1">Takhar, Opinderjit Kaur (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aeKWQzesOc4C&pg=PA51">"2 Guru Nanak Nishkam Sewak Jatha"</a>. Sikh identity: an exploration of groups among Sikhs. Ashgate Publishing. p. 51. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7546-5202-1</bdi>. Retrieved November 26, 2010.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/kashrut.html">"Kashrut: Jewish Dietary Laws"</a>. <a href="Jewish_Virtual_Library" title="Jewish Virtual Library">Jewish Virtual Library</a>. Retrieved February 3, 2025.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://halalhmc.org/resources/definition-of-halal/">"Definition of Halal"</a>. Halal Monitoring Committee U.K. Retrieved February 3, 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Loughnan2014-169"><a href="#cite_ref-Loughnan2014_169-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLoughnanBastianHaslam2014" class="citation journal cs1">Loughnan, Steve; Bastian, Brock; Haslam, Nick (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://foodethics.univie.ac.at/fileadmin/user_upload/inst_ethik_wiss_dialog/Loughnan__S._2014_And_Bastian._..The_Psychology_of_Eating_Animals._In._CURRENT_DIRECTIONS_IN_PSYCHOLOGICAL_SCIENCE.pdf">"The Psychology of Eating Animals"</a> (PDF). Current Directions in Psychological Science. 23 (2): 104–108. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0963721414525781">10.1177/0963721414525781</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145339463">145339463</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180930183806/https://foodethics.univie.ac.at/fileadmin/user_upload/inst_ethik_wiss_dialog/Loughnan__S._2014_And_Bastian._..The_Psychology_of_Eating_Animals._In._CURRENT_DIRECTIONS_IN_PSYCHOLOGICAL_SCIENCE.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on September 30, 2018. Retrieved August 6, 2015.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Rozin2012-170"><a href="#cite_ref-Rozin2012_170-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRozinHormesFaithWansink2012" class="citation journal cs1">Rozin, Paul; Hormes, Julia M.; Faith, Myles S.; Wansink, Brian (October 2012). "Is Meat Male? A Quantitative Multimethod Framework to Establish Metaphoric Relationships". Journal of Consumer Research. 39 (3): 629–43. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F664970">10.1086/664970</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Keller2015-171"><a href="#cite_ref-Keller2015_171-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKellerSeigrist2015" class="citation journal cs1">Keller, Carmen; Seigrist, Michael (January 2015). "Does personality influence eating styles and food choices? Direct and indirect effects". Appetite. 84: 128–138. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.appet.2014.10.003">10.1016/j.appet.2014.10.003</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25308432">25308432</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:34628674">34628674</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Richardson1994-172"><a href="#cite_ref-Richardson1994_172-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRichardson1994" class="citation journal cs1">Richardson, N.J.; et al. (1994). "Consumer Perceptions of Meat". Meat Science. 36 (1–2): 57–65. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0309-1740%2894%2990033-7">10.1016/0309-1740(94)90033-7</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22061452">22061452</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Klöckner_2014-173"><a href="#cite_ref-Klöckner_2014_173-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFZurKlöckner2014" class="citation journal cs1">Zur, Ifat; Klöckner, Christian A. (2014). "Individual motivations for limiting meat consumption". British Food Journal. 116 (4): 629–42. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1108%2Fbfj-08-2012-0193">10.1108/bfj-08-2012-0193</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Schösler-174"><a href="#cite_ref-Schösler_174-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSchöslerBoerBoersema2012" class="citation journal cs1">Schösler, Hanna; Boer, Joop de; Boersema, Jan J. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/54385240-11c1-41fd-86a4-25c10ac6f23a">"Can we cut out the meat of the dish? Constructing consumer-oriented pathways towards meat substitution"</a>. Appetite. 58 (1): 39–47. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.appet.2011.09.009">10.1016/j.appet.2011.09.009</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21983048">21983048</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10495322">10495322</a>.</cite>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div>

This article incorporates text from a <a href="Free_content" title="Free content">free content</a> work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 (<a class="external text external" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/whttps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:World_Food_and_Agriculture_-_Statistical_Yearbook_2023.pdf">license statement/permission</a>). Text taken from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en?details=cc8166en">World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023</a>, FAO, FAO.

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFLawrieLedward2006" class="citation book cs1">Lawrie, R.A.; Ledward, D. A. (2006). Lawrie's meat science (7th ed.). Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-84569-159-2</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .infobox .side-box{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div class="side-box side-box-right sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style>

<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Meats" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Meats">Meats</a>.</div></div>

</div>

<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Meat" class="extiw external" title="q:Special:Search/Meat">Meat</a>.</div></div>

</div>

<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Cookbook" class="extiw external" title="wikibooks:Cookbook">Cookbook</a> has a recipe/module on

</div></div></div>

</div>

<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikivoyage has a travel guide for <a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Meat#Q10990" class="extiw external" title="wikivoyage:Meat">Meat</a>.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meatscience.org/">American Meat Science Association website</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/iarcnews/pdf/Monographs-Q&A.pdf">IARC Monographs Q&A</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181005091719/http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/iarcnews/pdf/Monographs-Q%26A.pdf">Archived</a> October 5, 2018, at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/iarcnews/pdf/Monographs-Q&A_Vol114.pdf">IARC Monographs Q&A on the carcinogenicity of the consumption of red meat and processed meat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181123082730/http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/iarcnews/pdf/Monographs-Q%26A_Vol114.pdf">Archived</a> November 23, 2018, at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Meat527" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div id="Meat527" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Poultry" title="Poultry">Poultry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cassowary" title="Cassowary">Cassowary</a></li>

<li><a href="Chicken_as_food" title="Chicken as food">Chicken</a></li>

<li><a href="Goose_as_food" title="Goose as food">Goose</a></li>

<li><a href="Ostrich_meat" title="Ostrich meat">Ostrich</a></li>

<li><a href="Squab" title="Squab">Pigeon</a></li>

<li><a href="Quail_as_food" title="Quail as food">Quail</a></li>

<li><a href="Turkey_meat" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkey meat">Turkey</a></li></ul>

</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="13" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Livestock" title="Livestock">Livestock</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Alpaca" title="Alpaca">Alpaca</a></li>

<li><a href="Beefalo" title="Beefalo">Beefalo</a></li>

<li><a href="American_bison" title="American bison">Bison</a></li>

<li><a href="Buffalo_meat" title="Buffalo meat">Buffalo</a></li>

<li><a href="Camel_meat" class="mw-redirect" title="Camel meat">Camel</a></li>

<li><a href="Donkey_meat" title="Donkey meat">Donkey</a></li>

<li><a href="Snails_as_food" title="Snails as food">Snails</a></li>

<li><a href="Guinea_pig" title="Guinea pig">Guinea pig</a></li>

<li><a href="Horse_meat" title="Horse meat">Horse</a></li>

<li><a href="Lamb_and_mutton" title="Lamb and mutton">Lamb and mutton</a></li>

<li><a href="Llama" title="Llama">Llama</a></li>

<li><a href="%C5%BBubro%C5%84" title="Żubroń">Żubroń</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Game_(hunting)" title="Game (hunting)">Game</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Alligator_meat" title="Alligator meat">Alligator</a></li>

<li><a href="Bushmeat" title="Bushmeat">Bushmeat</a></li>

<li><a href="Crocodile_meat" class="mw-redirect" title="Crocodile meat">Crocodile</a></li>

<li><a href="Elephant_meat" title="Elephant meat">Elephant</a></li>

<li><a href="Iguana_meat" title="Iguana meat">Iguana</a></li>

<li><a href="Kangaroo_meat" title="Kangaroo meat">Kangaroo</a></li>

<li><a href="Monkey_meat" title="Monkey meat">Monkey</a></li>

<li><a href="Mouse#As_food" title="Mouse">Mouse</a></li>

<li><a href="Pangolin_trade" title="Pangolin trade">Pangolin</a></li>

<li><a href="Rabbit#As_food_and_clothing" title="Rabbit">Rabbit</a></li>

<li><a href="Snake#Consumption" title="Snake">Snake</a></li>

<li><a href="Turtle" title="Turtle">Turtle</a></li>

<li><a href="Venison" title="Venison">Venison</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Fish_as_food" title="Fish as food">Fish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anchovies_as_food" title="Anchovies as food">Anchovy</a></li>

<li><a href="Catfish" title="Catfish">Catfish</a></li>

<li><a href="Crappie" title="Crappie">Crappie</a></li>

<li><a href="Flounder" title="Flounder">Flounder</a></li>

<li><a href="Grouper" title="Grouper">Grouper</a></li>

<li><a href="Haddock" title="Haddock">Haddock</a></li>

<li><a href="Halibut" title="Halibut">Halibut</a></li>

<li><a href="Herring_as_food" title="Herring as food">Herring</a></li>

<li><a href="King_mackerel" title="King mackerel">Kingfish</a></li>

<li><a href="Mackerel_as_food" title="Mackerel as food">Mackerel</a></li>

<li><a href="Marlin" title="Marlin">Marlin</a></li>

<li><a href="Milkfish" title="Milkfish">Milkfish</a></li>

<li><a href="Orange_roughy" title="Orange roughy">Orange roughy</a></li>

<li><a href="Pacific_saury" title="Pacific saury">Pacific saury</a></li>

<li><a href="Perch" title="Perch">Perch</a></li>

<li><a href="Cod_as_food" title="Cod as food">Pollock</a></li>

<li><a href="Salmon_as_food" title="Salmon as food">Salmon</a></li>

<li><a href="Sardines_as_food" title="Sardines as food">Sardine</a></li>

<li><a href="Shark_meat" title="Shark meat">Shark</a></li>

<li><a href="Swordfish" title="Swordfish">Swordfish</a></li>

<li><a href="Tilapia" title="Tilapia">Tilapia</a></li>

<li><a href="Trout" title="Trout">Trout</a></li>

<li><a href="Walleye" title="Walleye">Walleye</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Shellfish" title="Shellfish">Shellfish</a> and other <a href="Seafood" title="Seafood">seafood</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abalone" title="Abalone">Abalone</a></li>

<li><a href="Squid_as_food" title="Squid as food">Calamari</a></li>

<li><a href="Chiton" title="Chiton">Chiton</a></li>

<li><a href="Crayfish_as_food" title="Crayfish as food">Crayfish</a></li>

<li><a href="Dolphin" title="Dolphin">Dolphin</a></li>

<li><a href="Lobster_as_food" class="mw-redirect" title="Lobster as food">Lobster</a></li>

<li><a href="Mussel" title="Mussel">Mussel</a></li>

<li><a href="Octopus_as_food" title="Octopus as food">Octopus</a></li>

<li><a href="Oyster" title="Oyster">Oyster</a></li>

<li><a href="Scallop" title="Scallop">Scallop</a></li>

<li><a href="Shrimp_and_prawn_as_food" title="Shrimp and prawn as food">Shrimp/prawn</a></li>

<li><a href="Sea_cucumbers_as_food" title="Sea cucumbers as food">Sea cucumber</a></li>

<li><a href="Sea_urchin#As_food" title="Sea urchin">Sea urchin</a></li>

<li><a href="Whale_meat" title="Whale meat">Whale</a></li>

<li><a href="Ascidiacea#Culinary" title="Ascidiacea">Sea squirt</a></li>

<li><a href="Jellyfish_as_food" title="Jellyfish as food">Jellyfish</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Insects_as_food" title="Insects as food">Insects</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Hermetia_illucens" title="Hermetia illucens">Black soldier fly maggots</a></li>

<li><a href="Cicada" title="Cicada">Cicada</a></li>

<li><a href="Cricket_(insect)" title="Cricket (insect)">Crickets</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cricket_flour" title="Cricket flour">Flour</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Grasshopper" title="Grasshopper">Grasshoppers</a> (<a href="Locust" title="Locust">locust</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Mealworm" title="Mealworm">Mealworm</a></li>

<li><a href="Mezcal_worm" title="Mezcal worm">Mezcal worm</a></li>

<li><a href="Bombyx_mori" title="Bombyx mori">Silkworm</a></li>

<li><a href="Gonimbrasia_belina" title="Gonimbrasia belina">Mopane worm</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cuts and preparation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Bacon" title="Bacon">Bacon</a></li>

<li><a href="Barbecue" title="Barbecue">Barbecued</a></li>

<li><a href="Biltong" title="Biltong">Biltong</a></li>

<li><a href="Braising" title="Braising">Braised</a></li>

<li><a href="Patty" title="Patty">Burger</a></li>

<li><a href="Charcuterie" title="Charcuterie">Charcuterie</a></li>

<li><a href="Confit#Meat_confit" title="Confit">Confit</a></li>

<li><a href="Corned_beef" title="Corned beef">Corned</a></li>

<li><a href="Curing_(food_preservation)" title="Curing (food preservation)">Cured</a></li>

<li><a href="Cutlet" title="Cutlet">Cutlet</a></li>

<li><a href="Dried_meat" title="Dried meat">Dried</a></li>

<li><a href="Fermented_meat" title="Fermented meat">Fermented</a></li>

<li><a href="Fillet_(cut)" title="Fillet (cut)">Fillet</a>/<a href="Supreme_(cooking)" title="Supreme (cooking)">supreme</a></li>

<li><a href="Forcemeat" title="Forcemeat">Forcemeat</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cretons" title="Cretons">Cretons</a></li>

<li><a href="Frying" title="Frying">Fried</a></li>

<li><a href="Frozen_food" title="Frozen food">Frozen</a></li>

<li><a href="Ground_meat" title="Ground meat">Ground</a></li>

<li><a href="Jerky" title="Jerky">Jerky</a></li>

<li><a href="Kebab" title="Kebab">Kebab</a></li>

<li><a href="Kidney_(food)" title="Kidney (food)">Kidney</a></li>

<li><a href="Liver_(food)" title="Liver (food)">Liver</a></li>

<li><a href="Lunch_meat" title="Lunch meat">Luncheon meat</a></li>

<li><a href="Marination" title="Marination">Marinated</a></li>

<li><a href="Meatball" title="Meatball">Meatball</a></li>

<li><a href="Meatloaf" title="Meatloaf">Meatloaf</a></li>

<li><a href="Offal" title="Offal">Offal</a></li>

<li><a href="Pickling" title="Pickling">Pickled</a></li>

<li><a href="Pemmican" title="Pemmican">Pemmican</a></li>

<li><a href="Poaching_(cooking)" title="Poaching (cooking)">Poached</a></li>

<li><a href="Potted_meat" title="Potted meat">Potted</a></li>

<li><a href="Rillettes" title="Rillettes">Rillettes</a></li>

<li><a href="Roasting" title="Roasting">Roasted</a></li>

<li><a href="Salting_(food)#Meat" title="Salting (food)">Salt-cured</a></li>

<li><a href="Salumi" title="Salumi">Salumi</a></li>

<li><a href="Sausage" title="Sausage">Sausage</a></li>

<li><a href="Smoked_meat" title="Smoked meat">Smoked</a></li>

<li><a href="Steak" title="Steak">Steak</a></li>

<li><a href="Stew#Types_of_stew" title="Stew">Stewed</a></li>

<li><a href="Tandoor" title="Tandoor">Tandoor</a></li>

<li><a href="Steak_tartare" title="Steak tartare">Tartare</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">List articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_meat_dishes" title="List of meat dishes">Meat dishes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="List_of_chicken_dishes" title="List of chicken dishes">Chicken</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_seafood_dishes" title="List of seafood dishes">Seafood</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_steak_dishes" title="List of steak dishes">Steaks</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_meatball_dishes" title="List of meatball dishes">Meatball</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_smoked_foods" title="List of smoked foods">Smoked foods</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_sausage_dishes" title="List of sausage dishes">Sausage</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="List_of_countries_by_meat_consumption" title="List of countries by meat consumption">Countries by meat consumption</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_meat_production" title="List of countries by meat production">Countries by meat production</a></li>

<li><a href="Food_and_drink_prohibitions" title="Food and drink prohibitions">Food and drink prohibitions</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_meat_substitutes" title="List of meat substitutes">Meat substitutes</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ethics and psychology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ethics_of_eating_meat" title="Ethics of eating meat">Ethics of eating meat</a></li>

<li><a href="Carnism" title="Carnism">Carnism</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_rights" title="Animal rights">Animal rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychology_of_eating_meat" title="Psychology of eating meat">Psychology of eating meat</a>

<ul><li><a href="Psychology_of_eating_meat#Meat_paradox" title="Psychology of eating meat">Meat paradox</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Alternatives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Vegetarianism" title="Vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Flexitarianism" title="Flexitarianism">Semi-vegetarianism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Pescetarianism" title="Pescetarianism">Pescetarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Pollotarianism" title="Pollotarianism">Pollotarianism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Plant-based_diet" title="Plant-based diet">Plant-based diet</a></li>

<li><a href="Meat_alternative" title="Meat alternative">Meat alternative</a></li>

<li><a href="Veganism" title="Veganism">Veganism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Meat_science" title="Meat science">Meat science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Beef_hormone_controversy" title="Beef hormone controversy">Beef hormone controversy</a></li>

<li><a href="Feed_conversion_ratio" title="Feed conversion ratio">Feed conversion ratio</a></li>

<li><a href="Food_preservation" title="Food preservation">Preservation</a></li>

<li><a href="Meat_tenderness" title="Meat tenderness">Tenderness</a></li>

<li><a href="Meat_water_holding_capacity" title="Meat water holding capacity">Water holding capacity</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Meat_industry" title="Meat industry">Meat industry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Meat_broker" title="Meat broker">Broker</a></li>

<li><a href="Branch_house_(building)" title="Branch house (building)">Branch house</a></li>

<li><a href="Butcher" title="Butcher">Butcher</a></li>

<li><a href="Meat_cutter" title="Meat cutter">Cutter</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_impacts_of_animal_agriculture" title="Environmental impacts of animal agriculture">Environmental impact</a></li>

<li><a href="Intensive_animal_farming" title="Intensive animal farming">Factory farming</a></li>

<li><a href="Meat_jobber" title="Meat jobber">Jobber</a></li>

<li><a href="Meat-packing_industry" title="Meat-packing industry">Packing</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_slaughter" title="Animal slaughter">Slaughter</a>

<ul><li><a href="Slaughterhouse" title="Slaughterhouse">Slaughterhouse</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related subjects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Arachnophagy" title="Arachnophagy">Arachnophagy</a></li>

<li><a href="Artificial_marbling" title="Artificial marbling">Artificial marbling</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_cannibalism" title="Human cannibalism">Cannibalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Case-ready_meat" title="Case-ready meat">Case-ready meat</a>

<ul><li><a href="Meat_diaper" class="mw-redirect" title="Meat diaper">Meat diaper</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cultured_meat" title="Cultured meat">Cultured meat</a></li>

<li><a href="Entomophagy_in_humans" title="Entomophagy in humans">Entomophagy</a></li>

<li><a href="Mystery_meat" title="Mystery meat">Mystery meat</a></li>

<li><a href="Offal" title="Offal">Offal</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-vegetarian_food_in_India" title="Non-vegetarian food in India">Non-vegetarian food in India</a></li>

<li><a href="Pink_slime" title="Pink slime">Pink slime</a></li>

<li><a href="Roadkill_cuisine" title="Roadkill cuisine">Roadkill cuisine</a></li>

<li><a href="Warmed-over_flavor" title="Warmed-over flavor">Warmed-over flavor</a></li>

<li><a href="White_meat" title="White meat">White meat</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>

<ul><li> <a href="Portal%3AFood" title="Portal:Food">Food portal</a></li>

<li> Category: Meat</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox1012" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Authority control databases: National </th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4017469-4">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85082715">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph122657&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007558268905171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-08-02" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Meat&oldid=1303798714">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

</div>

</div></div>

</div>

</main>

</div>

</body></html>